{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T14:17:48Z","timestamp":1793197068759,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004334","name":"Merck","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004334","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Emerging evidence demonstrates a connection between microbiome composition and suboptimal response to vaccines (vaccine hyporesponse). Harnessing the interaction between microbes and the immune system could provide novel therapeutic strategies for improving vaccine response. Currently we do not fully understand the mechanisms and dynamics by which the microbiome influences vaccine response. Using both mouse and non-human primate models, we report that short-term oral treatment with a single antibiotic (vancomycin) results in the disruption of the gut microbiome and this correlates with a decrease in systemic levels of antigen-specific IgG upon subsequent parenteral vaccination. We further show that recovery of microbial diversity before vaccination prevents antibiotic-induced vaccine hyporesponse, and that the antigen specific IgG response correlates with the recovery of microbiome diversity. RNA sequencing analysis of small intestine, spleen, whole blood, and secondary lymphoid organs from antibiotic treated mice revealed a dramatic impact on the immune system, and a muted inflammatory signature is correlated with loss of bacteria from Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, and Clostridiaceae. These results suggest that microbially modulated immune pathways may be leveraged to promote vaccine response and will inform future vaccine design and development strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9111340","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T21:32:07Z","timestamp":1637184727000},"page":"1340","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Vaccine Hyporesponse Induced by Individual Antibiotic Treatment in Mice and Non-Human Primates Is Diminished upon Recovery of the Gut Microbiome"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Gokul","family":"Swaminathan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Citron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Vaccine Research, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, PA 19486, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianying","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Vaccine Research, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, PA 19486, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"suffix":"Jr.","given":"James E.","family":"Norton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abigail L.","family":"Reens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beg\u00fcm D.","family":"Top\u00e7uo\u011flu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia M.","family":"Maritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keun-Joong","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics & Drug Metabolism, MRL, Merck & Co. Inc., Rahway, NJ 07065, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel C.","family":"Freed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Vaccine Research, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, PA 19486, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teresa M.","family":"Weber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Vaccine Research, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, PA 19486, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cory H.","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahika","family":"Kadam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exploratory Science Center, Merck & Co., Inc., Cambridge, MA 02141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erin","family":"Spofford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Safety Assessment and Laboratory Animal Research, MRL, Merck & Co. Inc., Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erin","family":"Bryant-Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Safety Assessment and Laboratory Animal Research, MRL, Merck & Co. Inc., Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gino","family":"Salituro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics & Drug Metabolism, MRL, Merck & Co. 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