{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T05:46:12Z","timestamp":1788846372150,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]],"date-time":"2023-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chlorella vulgaris, Arthrospira platensis, Haematoccocus pluvialis, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum are species of interest for commercial purposes due to their valuable nutritional profile. The aim of this study was to investigate the iron content in these four microalgae, with emphasis on their iron bioaccessibility assessed using an in vitro digestion system to simulate the process which takes place in the stomach and small intestine of dogs, followed by iron quantification using atomic absorption spectrometry. Furthermore, the extraction of soluble proteins was carried out and size exclusion chromatography was applied to investigate iron speciation. Significant differences (p &lt; 0.004) in iron content were found between C. vulgaris, which had the highest (1347 \u00b1 93 \u03bcg g\u22121), and H. pluvialis, which had the lowest (216 \u00b1 59 \u03bcg g\u22121) iron content. C. vulgaris, A. platensis, and H. pluvialis showed an iron bioaccessibility of 30, 31, and 30%, respectively, while P. tricornutum showed the lowest bioaccessibility (11%). The four species analysed presented soluble iron mainly bound to proteins with high molecular mass ranging from &gt;75 to 40 kDa. C. vulgaris showed the highest iron content associated with good bioaccessibility; therefore, it could be considered to be an interesting natural source of organic iron in dog nutrition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10020138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]],"date-time":"2023-02-10T01:35:29Z","timestamp":1675992929000},"page":"138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Iron Bioaccessibility and Speciation in Microalgae Used as a Dog Nutrition Supplement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4991-2452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Dalmonte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4962-5277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carla Giuditta","family":"Vecchiato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giacomo","family":"Biagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Micaela","family":"Fabbri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Andreani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3911-8749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gloria","family":"Isani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum\u2014University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 50055-Ozzano dell\u2019Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2014.04.007","article-title":"Morphology, composition, production, processing and applications of Chlorella vulgaris: A review","volume":"35","author":"Safi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendes, M.C., Navalho, S., Ferreira, A., Paulino, C., Figueiredo, D., Silva, D., Gao, F., Gama, F., Bombo, G., and Jacinto, R. (2022). Algae as food in europe: An overview of species diversity and their applications. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11131871"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2019.101617","article-title":"Microalgae of interest as food source: Biochemical composition and digestibility","volume":"42","author":"Niccolai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2011.04.001","article-title":"An economic assessment of astaxanthin production by large scale cultivation of Haematococcus pluvialis","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1080\/07388551.2020.1805402","article-title":"Diatoms as cell factories for high-value products: Chrysolaminarin, eicosapentaenoic acid, and fucoxanthin","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandgruber, F., Gielsdorf, A., Baur, A.C., Schenz, B., Muller, S.M., Schwerdtle, T., Stang, G.I., Griehl, C., Lorkowski, S., and Dawczynski, C. (2021). Variability in macro- and micronutrients of 15 commercially avaiable microalgae powders. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19060310"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2022.111469","article-title":"Guidance for formulating ingredients\/products from Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis considering carotenoid and chlorophyll bioaccessibility and cellular uptake","volume":"157","author":"Nass","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-2997(00)00006-6","article-title":"The roles of iron in health and disease","volume":"22","author":"Pauline","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1021\/jf001193c","article-title":"Iron availability from iron-fortified spirulina by an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell culture model","volume":"49","author":"Puyfoulhoux","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.56499\/jppres20.821_8.5.422","article-title":"Bioaccessibility studies of Fe, Cu and Zn from Spirulina dietary supplements with different excipient composition and dosage form","volume":"8","author":"Principe","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacogen. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11130-009-0145-9","article-title":"Chlorella pyrenoidosa supplementation reduces the risk of anemia, proteinuria and edema in pregnant women","volume":"65","author":"Nakano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plant. Food. Hum. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-017-1357-2","article-title":"Bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds, lutein, and bioelements of preparations containing Chlorella vulgaris in artificial digestive juices","volume":"30","author":"Muszynska","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.algal.2021.102547","article-title":"Freshwater microalgae biomasses exert a prebiotic effect on human colonic microbiota","volume":"60","author":"Sivieri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Algal Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2938","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.10321","article-title":"Supplementation with Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella protothecoides, and Schizochytrium sp. increases propionate-producing bacteria in in vitro human gut fermentation","volume":"100","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delsante, C., Pinna, C., Sportelli, F., Dalmonte, T., Stefanelli, C., Vecchiato, C.G., and Biagi, G. (2022). Assessment of the effects of edible microalgae in a canine gut model. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12162100"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Case, L.P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M.G., and Raasch, M. (2010). Canine and Feline Nutrition: A Resource for Companion Animal Professionals, Elsevier Health Sciences. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.5326\/JAAHA-MS-5553","article-title":"Iron homeostasis and disorders in dogs and cats: A review","volume":"47","author":"McCown","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Geiger, U. (2005). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.2002.tb00034.x","article-title":"Two cases of severe iron-deficiencyanaemia due to inflammatory bowel disease in the dog","volume":"43","author":"Ristic","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051X.2016.1222242","article-title":"A new in vitro method to evaluate digestibility of commercial diets for dogs","volume":"15","author":"Biagi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ital. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isani, G., Niccolai, A., Andreani, A., Dalmonte, T., Bellei, E., Bertocchi, M., Tredici, M.R., and Rodolfi, L. (2022). Iron speciation and iron binding proteins in Arthrospira platensis grown in media containing different iron concentrations. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23116283"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002741","article-title":"Significance, errors, power, and the sample size: The blocking and tackling of statistics","volume":"126","author":"Masha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618503","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2020.618503","article-title":"Characterization of algae dietary supplements using antioxidative potential, elemental composition, and stable isotopes approach","volume":"5","author":"Kejzar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3567","DOI":"10.1007\/s10811-018-1681-1","article-title":"Essential and toxic elements in commercial microalgal food supplements","volume":"31","author":"Rzymski","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1003116003184","article-title":"Application of unicellular algae Chlorella vulgaris for the mass-culture of marine rotifer Brachionus","volume":"358","author":"Maruyama","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x","article-title":"Biomass nutrient profiles of three microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana","volume":"68","author":"Tokosoglu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-0080.2011.01569.x","article-title":"Investigation of the effects of Chlorella vulgaris as an adjunctive therapy for dyslipidemia: Results of a randomised open-label clinical trial","volume":"69","author":"Panahi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isani, G., Bertocchi, M., Ferlizza, E., Dalmonte, T., Fedrizzi, G., and Andreani, G. (2022). Iron content, iron speciation and phycocyanin in commercial samples of Arthrospira platensis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213949"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rutar, J.M., Hudobivnik, M.J., Necemer, M., Mikus, K.V., Arcon, I., and Ogrinc, N. (2022). Nutritional quality and safety of the Spirulina dietary supplements sold on the slovenian market. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11060849"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/jpy.12607","article-title":"Effect of iron on the growth of Phaeodactylum tricornutum via photosynthesis","volume":"54","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/ppl.13290","article-title":"The heterologous expression of a plastocyanin in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum improves cell growth under iron-deficient conditions","volume":"171","author":"Castell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Plant"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2022.02.004","article-title":"Digestibility, bioaccessibility and bioactivity of compounds from algae","volume":"121","author":"Demarco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"The European Pet Food Industry Federation\u2014FEDIAF (2021). Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs, FEDIAF."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.1039\/C9FO02603G","article-title":"In vitro bioaccessibility of minerals from microalgae-enriched cookies","volume":"11","author":"Igual","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2018.02.030","article-title":"M\u00f6ssbauer spectroscopic study of transformations of iron species by the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (formerly Spirulina platensis)","volume":"48","author":"Perfiliev","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1039\/b713633c","article-title":"Mettalomics: The concept and methodology","volume":"38","author":"Mounicou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2015.10.012","article-title":"Haematococcus pluvialis soluble proteins: Extraction, characterization, concentration\/fractioning and emulsifying properties","volume":"200","author":"Ba","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.02.021","article-title":"Iron-chelating ability and antioxidant properties of phycocyanin isolated from a proteanextract of Spirulina platensis","volume":"110","author":"Bermejo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.112.204156","article-title":"A comparative study of iron uptake mechanism in marine microalgae: Iron binding at the cell surface is a critical step","volume":"160","author":"Sutak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/09670262.2020.1744039","article-title":"Iron uptake proteins in algae and the role of iron starvation-induced proteins (ISIPs)","volume":"55","author":"Behnke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s40643-019-0287-z","article-title":"Chlorophyll as key indicator to evaluate astaxanthin accumulation ability of Haematococcus pluvialis","volume":"6","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioresour. Bioprocess."}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/10\/2\/138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:29:34Z","timestamp":1760120974000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/10\/2\/138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci10020138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci10020138","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,10]]}}}