{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T00:33:21Z","timestamp":1770424401350,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020","award":["101000365"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101000365"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Trematode infections cause long-term suffering and debilitation, posing a significant threat to global animal health and production and leading to considerable economic losses. Studies on the epidemiology and control of these infections in Tanzania are limited. The few available studies have been conducted in abattoir settings. This study aimed to fill this knowledge gap by determining the prevalence, distribution, and risk factors for trematode infections in domesticated ruminants in two different ecological zones of Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Lake Victoria and the Southern highlands ecological zones of Tanzania. Rectal fecal samples were collected and examined for F. gigantica, Paramphistomidae, and S. bovis infections using the sedimentation technique. A total of 1367 domesticated ruminants were sampled and examined for trematode infections. The overall prevalence of trematode infections was found to be 65.7%. The individual prevalence of F. gigantica, Paramphistomidae, and S. bovis (based on egg morphology only) was 35.1%, 60.2%, and 3.1%, respectively. Adult cattle were more likely to be infected with Paramphistomidae (adjusted odds ratio, (AOR): 1.98; 95% confidence interval, (CI): 1.40\u20132.78) and S. bovis (AOR: 8.5; 95% CI: 1.12\u201364.19) than weaners. It was observed that trematode infections in domesticated ruminants are prevalent in the two ecological zones of Tanzania; therefore, effective and community-directed prevention and control strategies are highly needed to address trematode infections of domesticated ruminants in these areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11120595","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T09:59:34Z","timestamp":1732528774000},"page":"595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Prevalence, Distribution and Risk Factors for Trematode Infections in Domesticated Ruminants in the Lake Victoria and Southern Highland Ecological Zones of Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3783-559X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Godlisten Shedrack","family":"Materu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3019, Tanzania"},{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"},{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Tukuyu Research Centre, Mbeya P.O. Box 538, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4719-7459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jahashi","family":"Nzalawahe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro P.O. Box 3019, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mita Eva","family":"Sengupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DYRLAEGEVEJ100.2, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7858-7177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna-Sofie","family":"Stensgaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DYRLAEGEVEJ100.2, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abdul","family":"Katakweba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pest Management, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro P.O. Box 3110, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Birgitte J.","family":"Vennervald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DYRLAEGEVEJ100.2, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Safari","family":"Kinung\u2019hi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Mwanza Research Centre, Mwanza P.O. Box 1462, Tanzania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2002030","article-title":"Fasciola hepatica and Paramphistomum daubneyi: Changes in prevalences of natural infections in cattle and Lymnaea truncatula from central France over the past 12 years","volume":"33","author":"Mage","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"186","article-title":"An evaluation of the economic losses resulting from the condemnation of cattle livers and loss of carcass weight due to fasciolosis: A case study from Hai town abattoir, Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania","volume":"21","author":"Swai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Livest. Res. Rural. Dev."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Urquhart, G.M., Armour, J., Duncan, J., Dunn, A., and Jennings, F.W. (2003). Veterinary Parasitology, Black Well Science Ltd.. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(09)69002-3","article-title":"Fasciola, lymnaeids and human fascioliasis, with a global overview of disease transmission, epidemiology, evolutionary genetics, molecular epidemiology and control","volume":"69","author":"Valero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-005-0048-0","article-title":"A retrospective study on the metacercarial production of Fasciola hepatica from experimentally infected Galba truncatula in central France","volume":"98","author":"Dreyfuss","year":"2006","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Chen, M., Ai, L., Xu, X.N., Jiao, J., Zhu, T., Su, H., Zang, W., Luo, J., and Guo, Y. (2023). An Outbreak of Human Fascioliasis Gigantica in Southwest China. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071520"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018000914","article-title":"Human fascioliasis infection sources, their diversity, incidence factors, analytical methods and prevention measures","volume":"145","author":"Bargues","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00066-3","article-title":"Spatial distribution of schistosomiasis and treatment needs in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and geostatistical analysis","volume":"15","author":"Lai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kouadio, J.N., Evack, J.G., Achi, L.Y., Fritsche, D., Ouattara, M., Silu\u00e9, K.D., Bonfoh, B., Hattendorf, J., Utzinger, J., and Zinsstag, J. (2020). Prevalence and Distribution of livestockSchistosomiasis and Fascioliasis in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire: Results from a Cross-Sectional Survey. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02667-y"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02242616","article-title":"Incidence of liver fluke infections (Fasciola gigantic and Dicrocoelium hospes) in ruminants in Northern Nigeria","volume":"12","author":"Folaranmi","year":"1980","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, D.S. (1994). Freshwater Snails of Africa and Their Medical Importance, Taylor and Francis Ltd.. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781482295184"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-006-4394-4","article-title":"The prevalence and economic significance of F. gigantica and Stilesia hepatica in slaughtered animals in the semiarid coastal Kenya","volume":"38","author":"Mungube","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.11648\/j.avs.20160402.11","article-title":"Study on Prevalence of Fascioliasis in Ruminants in Dasht Room County in Spring and Summer of 2013","volume":"4","author":"Moshfe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-005-5688-7","article-title":"Epidemiology of F. gigantica and amphistomes in cattle on traditional, small-scale dairy and large-scale dairy farms in the southern highlands of Tanzania","volume":"37","author":"Keyyu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182007004076","article-title":"The distribution of Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica within southern Tanzania\u2013constraints associated with the intermediate host","volume":"135","author":"Walker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, M.A., Coop, R.L., and Wall, R.L. (2016). Veterinary Parasitology, Wiley Blackwell. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119073680"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"21","article-title":"Liver fluke survey in zebu cattle of Iringa Region, Tanzania and first finding of the small fluke Dicrocoelium hospes\/Loos","volume":"18","author":"Mahlau","year":"1970","journal-title":"Bull. Epizoot. Dis. Afr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2965-7","article-title":"Evaluating the Effectiveness of Trematocides against F. gigantica and Amphistomes Infections in Cattle, Using Fecal Egg Count Reduction Tests in Iringa Rural and Arumeru Districts, Tanzania","volume":"11","author":"Nzalawahe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182015000827","article-title":"Associations between trematode infections in cattle and freshwater snails in highland and lowland areas of Iringa","volume":"142","author":"Nzalawahe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1892-8","article-title":"Transmission of Calicophoron daubneyi and Fasciola hepatica in Galicia (Spain): Temporal follow-up in the intermediate and definitive hosts","volume":"9","author":"Mezo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Stomach Fluke (Paramphistomes) in Ruminants","volume":"452","author":"Lloyd","year":"2007","journal-title":"PrimeFact"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trx047","article-title":"Should we be treating animal schistosomiasis in Africa? The need for a One Health economic evaluation of schistosomiasis control in people and their livestock","volume":"111","author":"Gower","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toledo, R., and Fried, B. (2014). Digenetic Trematodes, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0915-5"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"153","article-title":"Epidemiological studies of S. bovis in Iringa Region, Tanzania","volume":"43","author":"Kassuku","year":"1986","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-009-9325-8","article-title":"A Retrospective Survey of Liver Fasciolosis and Stilesiosis in Domesticated ruminants Based on Abattoir Data in Arusha, Tanzania","volume":"41","author":"Nonga","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"356","article-title":"Prevalence, seasonal variation and economic significance of fascioliasis in cattle as observed at Iringa abattoir between 1976\u20131980","volume":"32","author":"Hyera","year":"1984","journal-title":"Bull. Anim. Health Prod. Afr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.4314\/thrb.v14i2.6","article-title":"Sanitary practices and occurrence of zoonotic conditions in cattle at slaughter in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania: Implications for public health","volume":"14","author":"Komba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tanzan. J. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.3923\/rjvs.2010.179.188","article-title":"A slaughterhouse survey of liver lesions in slaughtered cattle, sheep and goats at Arusha, Tanzania","volume":"3","author":"Mellau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"9","article-title":"Prevalence and economic importance of F. gigantica and Stilesia hepatica in Sukuma land, Tanzania","volume":"7","author":"Msanga","year":"1985","journal-title":"Tanzan. Vet. Bull."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"107","article-title":"Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite infections in Maasai cattle in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania","volume":"18","author":"Swai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Livest. Res. Rural. Dev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(97)00179-9","article-title":"Distribution, prevalence and intensity of S. bovis in cattle in Iringa District, Tanzania","volume":"75","author":"Makundi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2024, May 29). Tanzania Climate, Retrieved from the Global Historical Weather and Climate Data. Available online: https:\/\/weatherandclimate.com\/tanzania."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Mahoo, H. (2005). Improving Research Strategies to Assist Scaling-Up of Pro-Poor Management of Natural Resources in Semi-Arid Areas, SWMRG, Sokoine University of Agriculture. Available online: https:\/\/weatherandclimate.com\/tanzania."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-107","article-title":"Trematode Infections in Cattle in Arumeru District, Tanzania are Associated with Irrigation","volume":"7","author":"Nzalawahe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Thrusfield, M. (2018). Veterinary Epidemiology, John Wiley & Sons. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Sirois, M. (2016). Principles and Practice of Veterinary Technology, Mosby. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Soulsby, F.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals, Baillere-Tindall. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2252-z","article-title":"Longitudinal survey on the distribution of Biomphalaria sudanica and B. choanomophala in Mwanza region, on the shores of Lake Victoria, Tanzania: Implications for schistosomiasis transmission and control","volume":"10","author":"Gouvras","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Danish Biliharziasis Laboratory-WHO (1998). A Field Guide to African Freshwater Snails, Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory, WHO Collaborating Centre for Applied Malacology."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"181","article-title":"An introductory guide to the identification of cercariae from African freshwater snails with special reference to cercariae of medical and veterinary importance","volume":"41","author":"Frandsen","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"85","article-title":"Prevalence of cattle flukes infection at Andassa domesticated ruminants research center in north-west of Ethiopia","volume":"3","author":"Yeneneh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Forum"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Dorchies, P.H. (2006, January 15\u201319). Flukes: Old parasites but new emergence. Proceedings of the XXIV World Buiatrics Congress, Nice, France. 16 Consultada."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hansen, J., and Perry, B. (1994). The Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants, a Hand Book, International Laboratory for Research on Animal Disease (ILRAD)."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(91)90150-6","article-title":"Epidemiology of paramphistomosis in cattle","volume":"21","author":"Rolfe","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182014000869","article-title":"Diagnosis of human fascioliasis by stool and blood techniques: Update for the present global scenario","volume":"141","author":"Bargues","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.07.003","article-title":"Correlation between egg-shedding and uterus development in Fasciola hepatica human and animal isolates: Applied implications","volume":"183","author":"Valero","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[0308:PISASO]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Patterns in size and shedding of Fasciola hepatica eggs by naturally and experimentally infected murid rodents","volume":"88","author":"Valero","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-06660-0","article-title":"Accuracy of the sedimentation and filtration methods for the diagnosis of schistosomiasis in cattle","volume":"119","author":"Kouadio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, M.K., Bong, S.H., Green, K.M., Holmes, P., Duke, M., Loukas, A., and McManus, D.P. (2008). Correlative and dynamic imaging of the hatching biology of Schistosoma japonicum from eggs prepared by high pressure freezing. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000334"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.5958\/2277-940X.2016.00139.X","article-title":"Study on prevalence and associated risk factors for bovine and human schistosomiasis in Bahir Dar and its surrounding areas","volume":"6","author":"Melkamu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(18)33695-6","article-title":"Schistosoma mattheei in sheep: The host-parasite relationship","volume":"17","author":"Lawrence","year":"1974","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1122","article-title":"On farm study of bovine fasciolosis in Lemo district and its economic loss due to liver condemnation at Hossana municipal abattoir, southern Ethiopia","volume":"3","author":"Chakiso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization (1993). The Epidemiology of Helminth Parasites, Food and Agriculture Organization. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-005-3176-1","article-title":"Cross-sectional prevalence of helminth infections in cattle on traditional, small-scale and largescale dairy farms in Iringa district, Tanzania","volume":"30","author":"Keyyu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02242240","article-title":"Liver fluke infections of cattle in Mali. An abattoir survey on prevalence and geographic distribution","volume":"20","author":"Tembely","year":"1988","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1737-5","article-title":"Cross-sectional study of F. gigantica and other trematode infections of cattle in Edu local government area, Kwara state, north-Central Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Elelu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9572373","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9572373","article-title":"Prevalence of bovine fasciolosis and its economic loss due to liver condemnation at Wolaita Sodo municipal abattoir, Ethiopia","volume":"2019","author":"Zewde","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2017.02.001","article-title":"Survey of bovine fasciolosis burdens in trade cattle slaughtered at abattoirs in north-Central Nigeria: The associated predisposing factors and economic implication","volume":"2","author":"Yatswako","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol. Control"}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/11\/12\/595\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:39:06Z","timestamp":1760114346000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/11\/12\/595"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci11120595"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci11120595","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]}}}