{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:16:01Z","timestamp":1787030161387,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740960000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Louisiana State University Charles V. Cusimano Equine Health Studies Program","award":["PG008200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PG008200"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dysbiosis of the lower reproductive tract (LRT) in mares may play a role in clinical diseases, including endometritis and placentitis. Metagenomic\/metagenetic analysis of bacterial DNA can identify organisms that are not readily cultured and, thus, may go undetected. In this study, we tested the following hypotheses: (1) the clitoris of estrual mares harbors a unique resident microbiome, (2) topical Lactobacillus genus complex (LGC)-containing probiotic will alter the equine clitoral microbiome, and (3) early pregnancy rates following clitoral LGC application will not differ significantly from industry standards. Mares (n = 12) in estrus had sterile clitoral swabs collected (0) prior to daily topical LGC for 4 days. Second (12 h) and third clitoral swabs (48 h) were collected following final LGC application. During the next estrus, the mares were bred by artificial insemination. Genomic DNA was extracted and used for 16S rRNA sequencing via the Illumina Miseq platform. Abundance was evaluated via Friedman test with pairwise Dunn\u2019s post hoc comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05. Compared to time 0, Desulfobacterota decreased and Corynebacterium spp. increased at 12 h and 48 h compared to 0, while Actinobacillus and Fusobacterium spp. increased in a time-dependent manner. Furthermore, Mobiluncus spp. and Christensenellacea_R-7_group decreased at 12 h and 48 h compared to 0. LGC changed the beta but not alpha diversity at both 12 h and 48 h. Mares with LGC application achieved an 85% pregnancy rate in the subsequent estrus. Future investigations are needed to understand the role of the LRT microbiome and probiotics in equine breeding.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12030232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T05:52:16Z","timestamp":1740981136000},"page":"232","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Lactobacillus Genus Complex Probiotic-Induced Changes on the Equine Clitoral Microbiome"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Fiona","family":"Herzog","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kassandra R.","family":"Crissman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kalie F.","family":"Beckers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guoli","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Statistical Training & Consulting (CSTAT), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0723-8313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chin-Chi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of Research and Graduate Education, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5360-1243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jenny L.","family":"Sones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Fort Collins, CO 80423, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1988.193.01.72","article-title":"Clinical significance of aerobic bacterial flora of the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa of clinically normal mares","volume":"193","author":"Hinrichs","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"2882","article-title":"The important clitoral isolated bacteria of Iranian problem mares","volume":"6","author":"Mohammadsadegh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr. J. Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0033-1361821","article-title":"Potential influence of the microbiome on infertility and assisted reproductive technology","volume":"32","author":"Sirota","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Reprod. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beckers, K.F., Gomes, V.C.L., Crissman, K.R., Liu, C.C., Schulz, C.J., Childers, G.W., and Sones, J.L. (2023). Metagenetic analysis of the pregnant microbiome in horses. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13121999"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hemberg, E., Niazi, A., Guo, Y., Debnar, V.J., Vincze, B., Morrell, J.M., and Kutvolgyi, G. (2023). Microbial profiling of amniotic fluid, umbilical blood and placenta of the foaling mare. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13122029"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2023.04.022","article-title":"Characterization of the equine placental microbial population in healthy pregnancies","volume":"206","author":"Monteiro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barba, M., Mart\u00ednez-Bov\u00ed, R., Quereda, J.J., Moc\u00e9, M.L., Plaza-D\u00e1vila, M., Jim\u00e9nez-Trigos, E., Gomez-Martin, A., Gonzales-Torres, P., Carbonetto, B., and Garcia-Rosello, E. (2020). Vaginal microbiota is stable throughout the estrous cycle in Arabian mares. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10112020"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gil-Miranda, A., Caddey, B., Orellana-Guerrero, D., Smith, H., Samper, J.C., and Gomez, D.E. (2024). Vaginal and uterine microbiota of healthy maiden mares during estrus. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11070323"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Jones, E. (2019). Characterization of the Equine Microbiome During Late Gestation and the Early Postpartum Period, and at Various Times During the Estrous Cycle in Mares Being Bred with Raw or Extended Semen. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Kansas State University]."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Pugh, G. (2018). The Role of Microbial Diversity in Female Reproductive Tract Health: An Analysis of the Microbiome\u2019s Influence on Pregnancy Outcomes in Postparturient Mares. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Eastern Kentucky University]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2023.104718","article-title":"Metagenomic characterization of the equine endometrial microbiome during anestrus","volume":"125","author":"Heil","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heil, B.A., van Heule, M., Thompson, S.K., Kearns, T.A., Oberhaus, E.L., King, G., Daels, P., Dini, P., and Sones, J.L. (2023). Effect of sampling method on detection of the equine uterine microbiome during estrus. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10110644"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holyoak, G.R., Premathilake, H.U., Lyman, C.C., Sones, J.L., Gunn, A., Wieneke, X., and DeSilva, U. (2022). The healthy equine uterus harbors a distinct core microbiome plus a rich and diverse microbiome that varies with geographical location. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-18971-6"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"273","article-title":"The equine endometrial microbiome","volume":"10","author":"Holyoak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Theriogenol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2023.104724","article-title":"Association of the uterine microbiome to mare fertility","volume":"125","author":"Krekeler","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"453","article-title":"Metagenomic sequencing of the uterine microbial environment during estrus and early pregnancy in mares","volume":"9","author":"Sathe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Theriogenol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"443","article-title":"Next Generation DNA Sequencing, culture and cytology results in 10 clinically normal mares","volume":"9","author":"Schnobrich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Theriogenol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2022.v12.i6.3","article-title":"Characterization of microbial communities and predicted metabolic pathways in the uterus of healthy mares","volume":"12","author":"Thomson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1369","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.1369","article-title":"Metagenomic analysis unravels novel taxonomic differences in the uterine microbiome between healthy mares and mares with endometritis","volume":"10","author":"Virendra","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"175","article-title":"Therapeutics for infectious endometritis: A clinical perspective","volume":"4","author":"Ferris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Reprod. Anim."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.21836\/PEM19990619","article-title":"The treatment of equine endometritis in studfarm practice","volume":"15","author":"Ricketts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pferdeheilkun"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-021-02247-5","article-title":"The impact of the female genital tract microbiome in women health and reproduction: A review","volume":"38","author":"Labarta","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Gene"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(87)90076-9","article-title":"Capsule types of Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from the genital tract of mares with metritis, extra-genital sites of healthy mares and the genital tract of stallions","volume":"15","author":"Kikuchi","year":"1987","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Samper, J., Pycock, J., and McKinnon, A. (2007). Infections and neoplastic conditions of the vulva and perineum. Current Therapy in Equine Reproduction, Saunders Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-54-20","article-title":"Conception rate, uterine infection and embryo quality after artificial insemination and natural breeding with a stallion carrier of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A case report","volume":"54","author":"Tiago","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2006.08.008","article-title":"Clinical study comparing probiotic Lactobacillus GR-1 and RC-14 with metronidazole vaginal gel to treat symptomatic bacterial vaginosis","volume":"8","author":"Anukam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2010.04.010","article-title":"Lactic acid bacteria colonization and clinical outcome after probiotic supplementation in conventionally treated bacterial vaginosis and vulvovaginal candidiasis","volume":"12","author":"Daroczy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1080\/00015550410022249","article-title":"A double-blind treatment study of bacterial vaginosis with normal vaginal lactobacilli after an open treatment with vaginal clindamycin ovules","volume":"85","author":"Eriksson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-014-9176-0","article-title":"Local probiotic therapy for vaginal Candida albicans infections","volume":"7","author":"Kovachev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2008.02477.x","article-title":"Improved treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis with fluconazole plus probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 and Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14","volume":"48","author":"Martinez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbio"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2008.02112.x","article-title":"Effectiveness of Lactobacillus-containing vaginal tablets in the treatment of symptomatic bacterial vaginosis","volume":"15","author":"Mastromarino","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oerlemans, E.F.M., Bellen, G., Claes, I., Henkens, T., Allonsius, C.N., Wittouck, S., van den Broek, M.F.L., Wuyts, S., Kiekens, F., and Donders, G.G.G. (2020). Impact of a lactobacilli-containing gel on vulvovaginal candidosis and the vaginal microbiome. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64705-x"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000000226","article-title":"Effectiveness of the two microorganisms Lactobacillus fermentum LF15 and Lactobacillus plantarum LP01, formulated in slow-release vaginal tablets, in women affected by bacterial vaginosis: A pilot study","volume":"48","author":"Vicariotto","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-007-9180-4","article-title":"Vaginal lactic acid bacteria in the mare: Evaluation of the probiotic potential of native Lactobacillus spp. and Enterococcus spp. strains","volume":"93","author":"Fraga","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antonie Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-024-10295-2","article-title":"Isolation of lactic acid bacteria from the reproductive tract of mares as potentially beneficial strains to prevent equine endometritis","volume":"48","author":"Silva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2014.02.007","article-title":"Intravaginal administration of lactic acid bacteria modulated the incidence of purulent vaginal discharges, plasma haptoglobin concentrations, and milk production in dairy cows","volume":"96","author":"Ametaj","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2015-9650","article-title":"Intravaginal probiotics modulated metabolic status and improved milk production and composition of transition dairy cows","volume":"94","author":"Deng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Q., Odhiambo, J.F., Farooq, U., Lam, T., Dunn, S.M., and Ametaj, B.N. (2014). Intravaginal lactic Acid bacteria modulated local and systemic immune responses and lowered the incidence of uterine infections in periparturient dairy cows. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124167"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2010.12.002","article-title":"Comparison of three diagnostic methods to identify subclinical endometritis in mares","volume":"75","author":"Overbeck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5112","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01043-13","article-title":"Development of a dual-index sequencing strategy and curation pipeline for analyzing amplicon sequence data on the MiSeq Illumina sequencing platform","volume":"79","author":"Kozich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2782","DOI":"10.1099\/ijsem.0.004107","article-title":"A taxonomic note on the genus Lactobacillus: Description of 23 novel genera, emended description of the genus Lactobacillus Beijerinck 1901, and union of Lactobacillaceae and Leuconostocaceae","volume":"70","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-019-01564-0","article-title":"Effect of the vaginal microbiome on the pregnancy rate in women receiving assisted reproductive treatment","volume":"36","author":"Bernabeu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Genet."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1002\/jobm.202100421","article-title":"Insights into the role of vaginal microbiome in women\u2019s health","volume":"61","author":"Deka","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Basic Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-015-0614-z","article-title":"Endometrial microbiome at the time of embryo transfer: Next-generation sequencing of the 16S ribosomal subunit","volume":"33","author":"Franasiak","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Genet."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernandes, C., Silveira, P., Rodrigues Sereia, A.F., Christoff, A.P., Mendes, H., Valter de Oliveira, L.F., and Podgaec, S. (2020). Microbiome profile of deep endometriosis patients: Comparison of vaginal fluid, endometrium and lesion. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10030163"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dez065","article-title":"The vaginal microbiome as a predictor for outcome of in vitro fertilization with or without intracytoplasmic sperm injection: A prospective study","volume":"34","author":"Koedooder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1002\/rmb2.12250","article-title":"A pilot study and case reports on endometrial microbiota and pregnancy outcome: An analysis using 16S rRNA gene sequencing among IVF patients, and trial therapeutic intervention for dysbiotic endometrium","volume":"18","author":"Kyono","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2019.05.015","article-title":"Endometrial microbiota in infertile women with and without chronic endometritis as diagnosed using a quantitative and reference range-based method","volume":"112","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(00)01624-1","article-title":"Bacteria in the transfer catheter tip influence the live-birth rate after in vitro fertilization","volume":"74","author":"Moore","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2016.09.075","article-title":"Evidence that the endometrial microbiota has an effect on implantation success or failure","volume":"215","author":"Moreno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4680","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002611107","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women","volume":"108","author":"Ravel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humic.2017.01.004","article-title":"Characterizing the endometrial microbiome by analyzing the ultra-low bacteria from embryo transfer catheter tips in IVF cycles: Next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis of the 16S ribosomal gene","volume":"3","author":"Tao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Microbiome J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-022-01752-3","article-title":"Human genital tracts microbiota: Dysbiosis crucial for infertility","volume":"45","author":"Venneri","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitale, S.G., Ferrari, F., Ciebiera, M., Zgliczy\u0144ska, M., Rapisarda, A.M.C., Vecchio, G.M., Pino, A., Angelico, G., Knafel, A., and Riemma, G. (2022). The role of genital tract microbiome in fertility: A systematic review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23010180"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-0481-61-5-307","article-title":"Ascending placentitis in the mare: A review","volume":"61","author":"Cummins","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ir. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0531.2009.01485.x","article-title":"Clinical and subclinical endometritis in the mare: Both threats to fertility","volume":"44","author":"LeBlanc","year":"2009","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2005.05.009","article-title":"Treatment strategies for mares with placentitis","volume":"64","author":"Macpherson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R95","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-19-0478","article-title":"Equine endometritis: A review of challenges and new approaches","volume":"160","author":"Morris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2005.apm_113501.x","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis\u2014A disturbed bacterial flora and treatment enigma","volume":"113","author":"Larsson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Lu, Y., Chen, T., and Li, R. (2021). The female vaginal microbiome in health and bacterial vaginosis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.631972"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309583","DOI":"10.1155\/S1064744901000060","article-title":"Antimicrobial protein produced by vaginal Lactobacillus acidophilus that inhibits Gardnerella vaginalis","volume":"9","author":"Aroutcheva","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breshears, L.M., Edwards, V.L., Ravel, J., and Peterson, M.L. (2015). Lactobacillus crispatus inhibits growth of Gardnerella vaginalis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae on a porcine vaginal mucosa model. BMC Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-015-0608-0"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., Kim, Y., and Kang, C.H. (2021). In vivo confirmation of the antimicrobial effect of probiotic candidates against Gardnerella vaginalis. Microorganism, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9081690"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2006.11.040","article-title":"Effect of Lactobacillus challenge on Gardnerella vaginalis biofilms","volume":"55","author":"Saunders","year":"2007","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"399","article-title":"Vaginal lactobacilli inhibiting growth of Gardnerella vaginalis, Mobiluncus and other bacterial species cultured from vaginal content of women with bacterial vaginosis","volume":"94","author":"Skarin","year":"1986","journal-title":"Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand. B"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, Z., Zhu, H., Zhao, D., Yang, P., Gao, F., Lu, C., Yin, U., Kan, S., and Chen, D. (2021). Probiotic Lactobacillus sp. strains inhibit growth, adhesion, biofilm formation, and gene expression of bacterial vaginosis-inducing Gardnerella vaginalis. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9040728"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koirala, R., Gargari, G., Arioli, S., Taverniti, V., Fiore, W., Grossi, E., Anelli, G.M., Cetin, I., and Guglielmetti, S. (2020). Effect of oral consumption of capsules containing Lactobacillus paracasei LPC-S01 on the vaginal microbiota of healthy adult women: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 96.","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiaa084"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bisanz, J.E., Seney, S., McMillan, A., Vongsa, R., Koenig, D., Wong, L., Dvoracek, B., Gloor, G.B., Sumarah, M., and Ford, B. (2014). A systems biology approach investigating the effect of probiotics on the vaginal microbiome and host responses in a double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of post-menopausal women. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104511"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Niu, X., Wang, B., Na, R., Xiao, B., and Yang, H. (2020). Evaluation of the Inhibitory Effects of Lactobacillus gasseri and Lactobacillus crispatus on the adhesion of seven common lower genital tract infection-causing pathogens to vaginal epithelial cells. Front. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.00284"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S142730","article-title":"The oral microbiome and adverse pregnancy outcomes","volume":"9","author":"Cobb","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1902\/annals.1998.3.1.222","article-title":"Preterm birth: Associations with genital and possibly oral microflora","volume":"3","author":"Hill","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-012-2660-4","article-title":"Relationship between periodontal inflammation and fetal growth in pregnant women: A cross-sectional study","volume":"287","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01395-09","article-title":"Transmission of diverse oral bacteria to murine placenta: Evidence for the oral microbiome as a potential source of intrauterine infection","volume":"78","author":"Fardini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.4.2272-2279.2004","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum induces premature and term stillbirths in pregnant mice: Implication of oral bacteria in preterm birth","volume":"72","author":"Han","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Ginther, O.J. (1979). Reproductive Biology of the Mare: Basic and Applied Aspects, Equiservices Publishing. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.2746\/095777308X357621","article-title":"The current status of antibiotic use in equine reproduction","volume":"21","author":"LeBlanc","year":"2010","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Edu"}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/12\/3\/232\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:46:14Z","timestamp":1760028374000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/12\/3\/232"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci12030232"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci12030232","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]]}}}