{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:01:14Z","timestamp":1792803674687,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]],"date-time":"2025-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High induction doses of propofol (PPF) may cause adverse effects. Co-induction protocols can reduce doses and enhance the beneficial profile of each drug. This study compared the induction quality, clinical, and echocardiographic effects of two rapid co-inductions in healthy, unpremedicated dogs. Baseline cardiorespiratory and echocardiographic variables were recorded. Dogs randomly received rapid intravenous PPF (2.2 mg\/kg) with either dexmedetomidine (3 \u00b5g\/kg) (PROPODEX; n = 12) or butorphanol (0.4 mg\/kg) (PROPOBUT; n = 12). Induction quality, additional PPF dose, intubation time, cardiorespiratory parameters (2, 5, 10, 15, 20 min), and recovery quality were recorded. A second echocardiography was performed 5 min after induction. Induction quality was significantly higher in PROPODEX, with significantly lower additional PPF requirements and shorter intubation time. In PROPODEX, heart rate significantly decreased from baseline and was significantly lower than PROPOBUT, while arterial blood pressures significantly increased in PROPODEX and decreased in PROPOBUT from baseline. PROPOBUT significantly reduced left ventricular (LV) diastolic volumes and increased E\/A ratio, while PROPODEX significantly increased LV systolic diameter and volumes, and significantly decreased fractional shortening. Recovery was significantly faster and better in PROPODEX. PROPOBUT preserved cardiac function but caused hypotension. PROPODEX provided superior induction and recovery quality, and cardiorespiratory stability, with only mild systolic function depression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12090885","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T07:33:02Z","timestamp":1758007982000},"page":"885","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Dexmedetomidine or Butorphanol for Co-Induction of General Anaesthesia with Propofol in Unpremedicated Healthy Dogs: Clinical and Echocardiographic Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5292-8722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuliano","family":"Ravasio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3736-6834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Amari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6014-4378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Locatelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7558-427X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Jacchetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ospedale Veterinario San Francesco, Via Newton 2, 20148 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4250-0823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valerio","family":"Bronzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5321-0410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica Alessandra","family":"Brioschi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences (DIVAS), Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"399","article-title":"Balanced Anaesthesia","volume":"9","author":"Lundy","year":"1926","journal-title":"Minn. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1213\/ane.0b013e31817b859e","article-title":"Is Synergy the Rule? A Review of Anesthetic Interactions Producing Hypnosis and Immobility","volume":"107","author":"Hendrickx","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2008.00408.x","article-title":"Fentanyl or Midazolam for Co-Induction of Anaesthesia with Propofol in Dogs","volume":"35","author":"Murison","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(99)50059-4","article-title":"Propofol Anesthesia","volume":"29","author":"Short","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am.-Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2017.07.004","article-title":"Effect of Dexmedetomidine on the Minimum Infusion Rate of Propofol Preventing Movement in Dogs","volume":"44","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cattai, A., Rabozzi, R., Ferasin, H., Isola, M., and Franci, P. (2018). Haemodynamic Changes during Propofol Induction in Dogs: New Findings and Approach of Monitoring. BMC Vet. Res., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-018-1608-8"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grimm, K.A., Lamont, L.A., Tranquilli, W.J., Greene, S.A., and Robertson, S.A. (2015). Injectable Anesthetics. Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones, Wiley Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119421375"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v62i3.2076","article-title":"The Effect of Premedication on the Induction Dose of Propofol in Dogs and Cats","volume":"62","author":"Geel","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9592.2008.02563.x","article-title":"Efficacy of Ketamine and Midazolam as Co-Induction Agents with Propofol for Laryngeal Mask Insertion in Children","volume":"18","author":"Goel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Paediatr. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.241.10.1307","article-title":"Evaluation of a Ketamine-Propofol Drug Combination with or without Dexmedetomidine for Intravenous Anesthesia in Cats Undergoing Ovariectomy","volume":"241","author":"Ravasio","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/jvp.13095","article-title":"Dosing Protocols to Increase the Efficacy of Butorphanol in Dogs","volume":"45","author":"Springfield","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"231","article-title":"The Pharmacology of Butorphanol, a 3,14-Dihydroxymorphinan Narcotic Antagonist Analgesic","volume":"220","author":"Pircio","year":"1976","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1990.196.01.135","article-title":"Pharmacologic Features of Butorphanol in Dogs and Cats","volume":"196","author":"Hosgood","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2022.03.002","article-title":"Effects of Intravenous Acepromazine and Butorphanol on Propofol Dosage for Induction of Anesthesia in Healthy Beagle Dogs","volume":"49","author":"Dantino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.65.1141","article-title":"Effects of Midazolam-Butorphanol, Acepromazine-Butorphanol and Medetomidine on an Induction Dose of Propofol and Their Compatibility in Dogs","volume":"65","author":"Sano","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.4103\/2229-5151.177369","article-title":"What Happens to the Hemodynamic Responses for Laryngeal Mask Airway Insertion When We Supplement Propofol with Butorphanol or Fentanyl for Induction of Anesthesia: A Comparative Assessment and Critical Review","volume":"6","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Crit. Illn. Inj. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.4103\/aer.AER_104_18","article-title":"Use of Butorphanol, Fentanyl, and Ketamine as Co-Induction Agents with Propofol for Laryngeal Mask Airway Insertion: A Comparative Study","volume":"12","author":"Nagalakshmi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anesth. Essays Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2005.00233.x","article-title":"Medetomidine and Dexmedetomidine: A Review of Cardiovascular Effects and Antinociceptive Properties in the Dog","volume":"32","author":"Murrell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.4103\/ija.IJA_313_19","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of I-Gel\u00ae Insertion Conditions Using Dexmedetomidine-Propofol versus Fentanyl-Propofol\u2014A Randomised Double-Blind Study","volume":"63","author":"Rustagi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.4103\/joacp.JOACP_104_18","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine with Propofol versus Fentanyl with Propofol for Insertion of Proseal Laryngeal Mask Airway: A Randomized, Double-Blinded Clinical Trial","volume":"35","author":"Choudhary","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2019.02.019","article-title":"Maternal and Neonatal Wellbeing during Elective C-Section Induced with a Combination of Propofol and Dexmedetomidine: How Effective Is the Placental Barrier in Dogs?","volume":"129","author":"Groppetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-199204000-00013","article-title":"Subhypnotic Doses of Propofol Possess Direct Antiemetic Properties","volume":"74","author":"Borgeat","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.80.10.969","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic Effects of Oral Transmucosal and Intravenous Administration of Dexmedetomidine in Dogs","volume":"80","author":"Dent","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1998.59.02.157","article-title":"Respiratory Depression and Apnea Induced by Propofol in Dogs","volume":"59","author":"Muir","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1993.202.07.1111","article-title":"Adverse Effects of Administration of Propofol with Various Preanesthetic Regimens in Dogs","volume":"202","author":"Smith","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R42","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03023084","article-title":"The Role of Alpha2 Agonists in Pediatric Anesthesia","volume":"52","author":"Hammer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can. J. Anesth.\/J. Can. D\u2019anesth\u00e9sie"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, S.-Y., Liu, G., Lin, J.-H., and Jin, Y.-P. (2021). Efficacy and Safety of Dexmedetomidine Premedication in Balanced Anesthesia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis in Dogs. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11113254"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2012.00709.x","article-title":"Comparison of Pain on Injection during Induction of Anaesthesia with Alfaxalone and Two Formulations of Propofol in Dogs","volume":"39","author":"Michou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15488","article-title":"ACVIM Consensus Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease in Dogs","volume":"33","author":"Keene","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"10","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Body Condition Score System for Dogs","volume":"22","author":"Laflamme","year":"1997","journal-title":"Canine Pract."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2009.00503.x","article-title":"Alfaxalone Induction Dose Following Administration of Medetomidine and Butorphanol in the Dog","volume":"37","author":"Maddern","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1993.tb01015.x","article-title":"Recommendations for Standards in Transthoracic Two-Dimensional Echocardiography in the Dog and Cat","volume":"7","author":"Thomas","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2242","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15914","article-title":"Left Ventricular M-Mode Prediction Intervals in 7651 Dogs: Population-Wide and Selected Breed-Specific Values","volume":"34","author":"Esser","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvc.2019.11.001","article-title":"Two-Dimensional Echocardiographic Left- Atrial-to-Aortic Ratio in Healthy Adult Dogs: A Reexamination of Reference Intervals","volume":"26","author":"Rishniw","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16089","article-title":"Echocardiographic Reference Intervals for Volumetric Measurements of the Left Ventricle Using the Simpson\u2019s Method of Discs in 1331 Dogs","volume":"35","author":"Wess","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvc.2011.11.005","article-title":"Echocardiographic Assessment of Canine Degenerative Mitral Valve Disease","volume":"14","author":"Chetboul","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1111\/vaa.12038","article-title":"Effects of Altering the Sequence of Midazolam and Propofol during Co-Induction of Anaesthesia","volume":"40","author":"Belda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2017.03.005","article-title":"Effect of Rate of Administration of Propofol or Alfaxalone on Induction Dose Requirements and Occurrence of Apnea in Dogs","volume":"44","author":"Bigby","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Society of Anesthesiologists (2018). Practice Guidelines for Moderate Procedural Sedation and Analgesia 2018: A Report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Moderate Procedural Sedation and Analgesia, the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons, American College of Radiology, American Dental Association, American Society of Dentist Anesthesiologists, and Society of Interventional Radiology. Anesthesiology, 128, 437\u2013479.","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000002043"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2008.00395.x","article-title":"A Comparison of Induction of Anaesthesia Using a Target-Controlled Infusion Device in Dogs with Propofol or a Propofol and Alfentanil Admixture","volume":"35","author":"Auckburally","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.5326\/JAAHA-MS-7055","article-title":"2020 AAHA Anesthesia and Monitoring Guidelines for Dogs and Cats","volume":"56","author":"Grubb","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.254.12.1421","article-title":"Recovery Characteristics of Dogs Following Anesthesia Induced with Tiletamine-Zolazepam, Alfaxalone, Ketamine-Diazepam, or Propofol and Maintained with Isoflurane","volume":"254","author":"Hampton","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2008.00417.x","article-title":"A Comparison of the Effects of Propofol and Etomidate on the Induction of Anesthesia and on Cardiopulmonary Parameters in Dogs","volume":"35","author":"Sams","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/vaa.12052","article-title":"A Dose Titration Study into the Effects of Diazepam or Midazolam on the Propofol Dose Requirements for Induction of General Anaesthesia in Client Owned Dogs, Premedicated with Methadone and Acepromazine","volume":"40","author":"Robinson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2012.01377.x","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of Ketamine and Propofol Combination Administered as Ketofol via Continuous Infusion in Cats","volume":"35","author":"Zonca","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2025.117578","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine and Alfaxalone Intravenous Co-Administration for the Induction of General Anaesthesia in Bitches Undergoing C-Section: Impact on Newborn Viability and Pharmacokinetics","volume":"247","author":"Brioschi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2885.2000.00245.x","article-title":"Clinical Effects and Pharmacokinetics of Medetomidine and Its Enantiomers in Dogs","volume":"23","author":"Kuusela","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2006.00732.x","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine or Medetomidine Premedication before Propofol-Desflurane Anaesthesia in Dogs","volume":"29","author":"Palacios","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Therap."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.1073","article-title":"Comparison of Medetomidine and Dexmedetomidine as Premedicants in Dogs Undergoing Propofol-Isoflurane Anesthesia","volume":"62","author":"Kuusela","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3806","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.895209","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Remifentanil and Dexmedetomidine in General Anesthesia for Cesarean Delivery","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grimm, K.A., Lamont, L.A., Tranquilli, W.J., Greene, S.A., and Robertson, S.A. (2015). Opioids. Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones, Wiley Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119421375"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Riviere, J.E., Papich, M.G., and Adams, H.R. (2006). Opioid Analgesic Drugs. Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Wiley Blackwell."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.720","article-title":"Effect of Medetomidine on Breathing and Inspiratory Neuromuscular Drive in Conscious Dogs","volume":"65","author":"Lerche","year":"2004","journal-title":"AJVR"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.160.26.891","article-title":"Evaluation of the Clinical Efficacy and Safety of Intramuscular and Intravenous Doses of Dexmedetomidine and Medetomidine in Dogs and Their Reversal with Atipamezole","volume":"160","author":"Granholm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/00480169.1997.36012","article-title":"The Use of Propofol for Induction of Anaesthesia in Dogs Premeditated with Acepromazine, Butorphanol and Acepromazine-Butorphanol","volume":"45","author":"Bufalari","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Z. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1097\/00000539-200109000-00006","article-title":"The Effects of Propofol on the Contractility of Failing and Nonfailing Human Heart Muscles","volume":"93","author":"Sprung","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Kaplan, J.A., Augoustides, J.G.T., Manecke, G.R., Maus, T., and Reich, D.L. (2017). Pharmacology of Anesthetic Drugs. Kaplan\u2019s Cardiac Anesthesia for Cardiac and Noncardiac Surgery, ELS."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/1053-0770(92)90006-S","article-title":"Effect of Dexmedetomidine, an A2-Adrenergic Agonist, in the Isolated Heart","volume":"6","author":"Flacke","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1053\/tvjl.2002.0735","article-title":"24-Hour Holter-Monitoring in the Perianaesthetic Period in Dogs Premedicated with Dexmedetomidine","volume":"164","author":"Kuusela","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-6363(99)00112-1","article-title":"Opioid Peptides and the Heart","volume":"43","author":"Barron","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2828(91)90086-2","article-title":"Characterization of [3H]U69593 Binding Sites in the Rat Heart by Receptor Binding Assays","volume":"23","author":"Tai","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvc.2021.08.004","article-title":"Echocardiographic Assessment of Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Dogs","volume":"40","author":"Bonagura","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/vru.12305","article-title":"Effects of Intravenous Dexmedetomidine on Cardiac Characteristics Measured Using Radiography and Echocardiography in Six Healthy Dogs","volume":"57","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2019.105346","article-title":"Intranasal Dexmedetomidine in Healthy Beagles: An Echocardiographic and Pharmacokinetic\/Pharmacodynamic Study","volume":"251","author":"Santangelo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.78.2.158","article-title":"Effects of a Combination of Acepromazine Maleate and Butorphanol Tartrate on Conventional and Two-Dimensional Speckle Tracking Echocardiography in Healthy Dogs","volume":"78","author":"Santarelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2020.02.010","article-title":"Intramuscular Alfaxalone and Methadone with or without Ketamine in Healthy Cats: Effects on Sedation and Echocardiographic Measurements","volume":"47","author":"Lazzarini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/12\/9\/885\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:45:17Z","timestamp":1760035517000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/12\/9\/885"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci12090885"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci12090885","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]]}}}