{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T13:05:36Z","timestamp":1791896736674,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":342,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The review deals with the current knowledge on the global panzootic spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs), with an emphasis on the H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b virus. It describes the viral structure, replication, pathotypes and molecular determinants of host range, including sialic-acid receptor usage and key genetic mammalian-adaptation markers (PB2-E627K and PB2-D701N mutations). The host spectrum nowadays extends from wild waterfowl and poultry including seabirds, terrestrial and marine mammals and, based largely on experimental studies or molecular detection, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Recently, the H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b virus has shown marked tropism for lactating mammary epithelium in dairy cattle, with virions shed in raw milk. The review reports epidemiology, geographical expansion, clinical presentation, pathogenesis and pathology, diagnosis, immune responses and vaccination approaches across species. It also analyses European Union (EU) and Italian regulatory frameworks, surveillance strategies and biosecurity measures from a One-Health perspective. The review highlights how climate change, wildlife\u2013livestock interfaces, intensive farming and global trade favor viral persistence and genomic reassortment and concludes by stressing strategic actions to limit further host adaptation and panzootic\/pandemic risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13010067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]],"date-time":"2026-01-09T12:52:17Z","timestamp":1767963137000},"page":"67","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Avian Influenza Viruses: Global Panzootic, Host Range Expansion and Emerging One-Health Threats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Luigi","family":"Bruno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prevention, Azienda Sanitaria Locale (A.S.L.) Napoli 3 Sud, Castellammare di Stabia, 80053 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Anna","family":"Nappo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prevention, Azienda Sanitaria Locale (A.S.L.) Napoli 3 Sud, Castellammare di Stabia, 80053 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9421-796X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Frontoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno (I.Z.S.M.), Portici, 80055 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Montinaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Azienda Socio-Sanitaria Locale (A.S.L.), 07100 Sassari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosanna","family":"Di Lecce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7033-0596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Guarnieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5428-1595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4511-9748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Attilio","family":"Corradi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graziosi, G., Lupini, C., Catelli, E., and Carnaccini, S. 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