{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T08:05:43Z","timestamp":1768550743222,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768435200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"grant CAE-RAPID","award":["862605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["862605"]}]},{"name":"national funding agency in Lithuania\u2014the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania","award":["TM-21-1\/2021-PRO-00041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TM-21-1\/2021-PRO-00041"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii, lentiviruses (e.g., CAE), Hypoderma spp., Neospora caninum, Mycoplasma spp., and pestiviruses are important for goat farming in Lithuania; however, data on their prevalence remain limited. To address this gap, a multi-pathogen study was conducted between 2021 and 2024 using selected ELISA kits (ID.vet, Innovative Diagnostics, France). A total of 380 blood samples were collected from 30 goat herds across different regions of Lithuania; the sample size varied depending on the pathogen. Serum samples were tested for antibodies, and seroprevalence was calculated for each pathogen. The highest seroprevalence was detected for T. gondii (38.9%, 143\/368) and CAE virus (19.5%, 74\/380). Antibodies to Mycoplasma spp. (0.3%, 1\/368), Hypoderma spp. (3.8%, 7\/184), and N. caninum (0.5%, 2\/368) were detected only sporadically, while no antibodies to Border disease virus or Q fever were identified. Mixed infections were found in 7.6% of samples. Chi-square analysis showed that co-infections with toxoplasmosis and CAE occurred more frequently than expected (\u03c72 = 19.05, p &lt; 0.001). Herd size was significantly associated only with CAE seroprevalence (\u03c72 = 7.913, df = 1, p &lt; 0.05). Overall, toxoplasmosis and CAE were identified as the most epidemiologically relevant infections in the Lithuanian goat population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13010086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T12:31:41Z","timestamp":1768480301000},"page":"86","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Serological Insights into Infectious Agents Circulating in Lithuanian Goats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Patricija","family":"Klibavi\u010d\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tomas","family":"Kup\u010dinskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Saulius","family":"Petkevi\u010dius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J\u016brat\u0117","family":"Buitkuvien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Serology Department, National Food and Veterinary Risk Assessment Institute, LT-08411 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0052-715X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Algirdas","family":"\u0160alomskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s13028-015-0105-3","article-title":"Seasonal patterns of gastrointestinal nematode infection in goats on two Lithuanian farms","volume":"57","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2024.106363","article-title":"The herd level prevalence of caprine arthritis-encephalitis and genetic characteristics of small ruminant lentivirus in the Lithuanian goat population","volume":"233","author":"Biernacka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marandykina-Prakien\u0117, A., Butkauskas, D., Gudi\u0161kis, N., Juozaityt\u0117-Ngugu, E., Bagdonait\u0117, D.L., Kirju\u0161ina, M., Calero-Bernal, R., and Prakas, P. (2023). Sarcocystis species richness in sheep and goats from Lithuania. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10080520"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00037","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: Risk factors and economic impact","volume":"15","author":"Stelzer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"69","article-title":"Prevalence and early detection of hypodermosis in goats using a competitive ELISA system in Lorestan, Iran","volume":"76","author":"Bagheri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Razi Inst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2561","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2021.2561-2567","article-title":"Clinical, histopathological, and molecular characterization of Mycoplasma species in sheep and goats in Egypt","volume":"14","author":"Mousa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Chauhan, M.S., Singh, M.K., Dixit, A.K., Dige, M.S., Paul, S., and Agrawal, N.D. (2017). Scientific Goat Production, ICAR\u2013Central Institute for Research on Goats."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"A comprehensive review of the common bacterial infections in dairy calves and advanced strategies for health management","volume":"15","author":"Robi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Res. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.102899","article-title":"Cattle veterinarians\u2019 awareness and understanding of biosecurity","volume":"176","author":"Pritchard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimeli, P., Mwacalimba, K., Tiernan, R., Mijten, E., Miroshnychenko, T., and Poulsen Nautrup, B. (2025). Important Diseases of Small Ruminants in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review with a Focus on Current Strategies for Treatment and Control in Smallholder Systems. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15050706"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lithuanian Zooepidemiological Data Centre (\u017d\u016aDC) (2023). Facts and Figures 2023, No. 1\u201331, \u017d\u016aDC. Available online: https:\/\/zudc.lt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/09\/Faktai-ir-skaiciai_2023-m.-Nr.-1-31_INTERNETUI_geguzes-9-d.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2023.105885","article-title":"A large-scale study on the seroprevalence of small ruminant lentiviral infection in the Polish goat population","volume":"213","author":"Kaba","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, A.G., Lapen, D.R., Provencher, J.F., and Wilson, S. (2024). The role of species ecology in predicting Toxoplasma gondii prevalence in wild and domesticated mammals globally. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011908"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masombuka, M., Mphuthi, M.B.N., Ngoshe, Y.B., Mokolopi, G., and Gcebe, N. (2024). Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats of North West Province, South Africa. BMC Vet. Res., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-024-03939-7"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danso, F., Iddrisu, L., Lungu, S.E., Zhou, G., and Ju, X. (2024). Effects of heat stress on goat production and mitigating strategies: A review. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14121793"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-024-04097-6","article-title":"Relationship between metabolic indices and milk yield in Saanen goats exposed to heat stress in semi-tropical climates","volume":"56","author":"Akkaya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cstres.2025.100082","article-title":"The effect of heat stress on the physiological parameters and blood biomarkers in Malabari goats","volume":"30","author":"Gopikrishnan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Stress Chaperones"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2023.102828","article-title":"Dynamics of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and seroconversion during pregnancy and lactation in naturally infected goats","volume":"98","author":"Steffen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prates, J.A.M. (2025). Heat stress effects on animal health and performance in monogastric livestock: Physiological responses, molecular mechanisms, and management interventions. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12050429"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2022.e00176","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in sheep and goats in Switzerland: Seroprevalence and occurrence in aborted foetuses","volume":"28","author":"Basso","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.5604\/12321966.1226851","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in goats from north-western Spain","volume":"23","author":"Cabanelas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farhab, M., Aziz, M.W., Shaukat, A., Cao, M.-X., Hou, Z., Huang, S.-Y., Li, L., and Yuan, Y.-G. (2025). Review of Toxoplasmosis: What We Still Need to Do. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12080772"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-022-01575-x","article-title":"A meta-analysis of the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in livestock and poultry worldwide","volume":"19","author":"Hajimohammadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.01.039","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in goats in Poland","volume":"178","author":"Czopowicz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.104014","article-title":"Seroprevalence and risk factors of exposure to caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus in southern Spain","volume":"180","author":"Luque","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.4274\/tpd.galenos.2022.07269","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in goats from Korkuteli District of Antalya","volume":"46","author":"Atelge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Turk. Parazitol. Derg."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"14","article-title":"Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and tick-borne encephalitis in domestic goats in Kaunas district, Lithuania","volume":"30","author":"Bagdonas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Zootech."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"33","article-title":"Serological evidence of Maedi-Visna and caprine arthritis-encephalitis in sheep and goats in the Kor\u00e7a region in Albania","volume":"3","author":"Rezart","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ger. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kemeter, L.M., Birzer, A., Heym, S., and Thoma-Kress, A.K. (2023). Milk Transmission of Mammalian Retroviruses. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11071777"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2012.09.018","article-title":"Risk factors associated with seropositivity to small ruminant lentiviruses in goat herds","volume":"94","author":"Kaba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"229","article-title":"Contagious agalactia in sheep and goats: Current perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Tardy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Auckl."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oakley, R.B., Gemechu, G., Gebregiorgis, A., Alemu, A., Zinsstag, J., Paris, D.H., and Tschopp, R. (2024). Seroprevalence and risk factors for Q fever and Rift Valley fever in pastoralists and their livestock in Afar, Ethiopia: A One Health approach. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012392"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toledo-Perona, R., Contreras, A., Gomis, J., Quereda, J.J., Garc\u00eda-Gal\u00e1n, A., S\u00e1nchez, A., and G\u00f3mez-Mart\u00edn, \u00c1. (2024). Controlling Coxiella burnetii in naturally infected sheep, goats and cows, and public health implications: A scoping review. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1321553"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jode\u0142ko, A., Szyma\u0144ska-Czerwi\u0144ska, M., Rola, J.G., and Niemczuk, K. (2021). Molecular Detection of Coxiella burnetii in Small Ruminants and Genotyping of Specimens Collected from Goats in Poland. BMC Vet. Res., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-03051-0"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Celi, K., Guzm\u00e1n, L., and Rey-Valeir\u00f3n, C. (2022). Apicomplexans in Goat: Prevalence of Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium spp., Eimeria spp. and Risk Factors in Farms from Ecuador. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12172224"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhaji, B.B., and Musa, M.I. (2023). Common Diseases of Goats, Treatment and Preventive Measures. Goat Science\u2014From Keeping to Precision Production, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.1001377"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fereig, R.M., Wareth, G., Abdelbaky, H.H., Mazeed, A.M., El-Diasty, M., Abdelkhalek, A., Mahmoud, H.Y.A.H., Ali, A.O., El-Tayeb, A., and Alsayeqh, A.F. (2022). Seroprevalence of Specific Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, and Brucella spp. in Sheep and Goats in Egypt. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12233327"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.20-0116","article-title":"Epidemiological survey of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in dairy goats in Central-Southern Taiwan","volume":"82","author":"Chiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"287","article-title":"Serological evidence of caprine arthritis-encephalitis in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia: Clinical case analysis","volume":"13","author":"Alamerew","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Auckl."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"369","article-title":"Prevalence of CAEV infections in goat herds","volume":"74","author":"Gruszecki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Wet."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5604\/12321966.1141370","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in Northern Italy\u2014Prevalence and risk factors","volume":"22","author":"Gazzonis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"653","article-title":"Epidemiological study of Toxoplasma gondii infection among cattle in Northern Poland","volume":"20","author":"Kur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e012423","DOI":"10.1590\/s1984-29612023068","article-title":"Seroprevalence and associated factors with Neospora caninum infection in sheep and goats slaughtered in the state of Para\u00edba, Brazil","volume":"32","author":"Batista","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-5150-pvb-5538","article-title":"Occurrence and risk factors associated with Mycoplasma agalactiae infection in dairy goat herds of Para\u00edba State, Brazil","volume":"39","author":"Matos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pesq. Vet. Bras."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2016.05.010","article-title":"Neospora caninum infection in sheep and goats from north-eastern Italy and associated risk factors","volume":"140","author":"Gazzonis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"100866","article-title":"Herd and animal-level prevalences and risk factors for Neospora caninum infection in cattle in Para\u00edba, northeastern Brazil","volume":"40","author":"Maia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol. Reg. Stud. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.08.004","article-title":"Serological evidence of exposure to Coxiella burnetii in sheep and goats in central Portugal","volume":"167","author":"Tavares","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03549624","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Border Disease in Danish sheep and goat herds","volume":"41","author":"Tegtmeier","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/13\/1\/86\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T13:45:25Z","timestamp":1768484725000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/13\/1\/86"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci13010086"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci13010086","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]]}}}