{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T01:46:25Z","timestamp":1790127985482,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":246,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770595200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University","award":["KFU260519"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KFU260519"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review is a comprehensive investigation of avian candidiasis, mainly caused by Candida albicans, although the prevalence of non-albicans Candida species has increased in domestic and wild birds. Avian candidiasis causes significant economic losses in poultry production through increased mortality, cost of treatments, and reduced growth rates, particularly in young birds and intensive farming operations. The pathogenesis section provides a description of the molecular virulence factors such as adhesin-mediated attachment (ALS, Agglutinin-Like Sequence family; HWP1, Hyphal Wall Protein 1), yeast-to-hypha morphogenesis, tissue damage by Candidalysin, biofilm formation on mucosal and abiotic surfaces, and secreted hydrolytic enzymes including secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases. The identified predisposing factors include immunosuppression, malnutrition, abuse of antibiotics, bad husbandry, and crop stasis. The diagnostic methods discussed encompass cytological analysis and fungal culture on selective media to more sophisticated methods of molecular analysis (PCR, MALDI-TOF MS, and NGS). Antifungal susceptibility investigations indicate that nystatin and amphotericin B are still very effective against most avian isolates and that resistance to the azoles is on the rise, especially with respect to the non-albicans Candida species. Nystatin is still the first-line treatment of localized infections; azoles are still used for resistant or systemic infections despite their hepatotoxicity. Sanitation, proper nutrition, and proper use of antimicrobials are essential to prevent diseases. The knowledge gaps comprise the absence of avian-specific pharmacokinetic information, poor knowledge of species-species virulence phenotypes, and the lack of point-of-care diagnostics. The need to have integrated One Health surveillance systems is emphasized by the zoonotic potential of the avian Candida reservoirs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13020171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T14:05:15Z","timestamp":1770645915000},"page":"171","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Avian Candidiasis: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Control"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Michelyne","family":"Haroun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fish Resources Research Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9064-1706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christophe","family":"Tratrat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9292-7000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roshmon Thomas","family":"Mathew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fish Resources Research Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2508-4426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Munir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Naeem","family":"Sattar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Laboratories, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Shawky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Avian Research Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hafedh","family":"Kochkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic & Applied Scientific Research Center, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ouda Nasser","family":"Aldakhilallah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fish Resources Research Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Avian Research Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8652-3157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdul","family":"Ghafoor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water and Environmental Studies Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khalid G. Biro","family":"Turk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water and Environmental Studies Center, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9894-7777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athina","family":"Geronikaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6616-1793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hesham S.","family":"Ghazzawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askun, T. 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