{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T01:16:50Z","timestamp":1790903810392,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PRIMA 2019","award":["559 JPI_MIUR20ESELL_01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["559 JPI_MIUR20ESELL_01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The eye is a sensitive target of sublethal stress in aquaculture-reared fish due to its direct exposure to the aquatic environment. This study tested a photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) water treatment system, integrated into a standard recirculating aquaculture system (RAS), to improve water quality and evaluated ocular health in Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) reared at 30 kg\/m3 for 28 days, with particular emphasis on the cornea as an indicator of fish welfare. Ocular analyses focused on the cornea and retina, two anatomically and functionally distinct structures. PEC significantly reduced ammonia levels and modulated nitrate concentrations compared to the control group (CTR), represented by a standard RAS. No differences in growth performance or body condition were observed between groups. Corneal integrity was assessed using optical coherence tomography, histology, and mucous cell staining to evaluate epithelial structure and protective responses. Corneal tissue was examined to detect local oxidative effects through morphological analysis and immunohistochemistry for 8-hydroxy-2\u2032-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Alcian Blu\u2013Periodic Acid\u2013Schiff (AB\u2013PAS) staining did not reveal significant differences in mucin-producing cells among groups. CTR fish exhibited epithelial disruption and increased 8-OHdG immunoreactivity, whereas fish reared in the RAS equipped with the PEC system, ensuring improved water quality, showed preserved corneal architecture despite mild oxidative stress. Molecular analysis of ocular tissues revealed no differential expression of oxidative stress-related genes, such as GPx1, GR, or sod1, in the two groups. Overall, these findings support the use of the cornea as a sensitive indicator of sublethal environmental stress in farmed fish and suggest that PEC treatment may contribute to improved water quality management and welfare monitoring in intensive aquaculture systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13040347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T14:09:54Z","timestamp":1775138994000},"page":"347","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Look Trout in the Eye: Corneal Biomarkers of Ammonia Stress in Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Treated with TiO2 Photoelectrocatalysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7850-8904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgio","family":"Mirra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9416-2195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaia Beatrice Maria","family":"Bianchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Stocchero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3954-2657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirko","family":"Sergio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6419-9122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Aidos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6744-2178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Bazzocchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6563-5335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Zurlo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1038-6886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annamaria","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5847-4327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Buoio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2780-5971","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia Clotilde","family":"Modina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Radaelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, 35020 Legnaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1370-8679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Bertotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, 35020 Legnaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tarek","family":"Temraz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Science Department, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8286-0570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadia","family":"Ch\u00e9rif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies, Salammbo 2025, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4550-175X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gian Luca","family":"Chiarello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3128-4619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Di Giancamillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, 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