{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:45:28Z","timestamp":1785422728697,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010434","name":"\u201cla Caixa\u201d Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["100010434"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["100010434"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010434","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011033","name":"Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011033","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/003x0zc53","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PID2024-159365NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-159365NB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PID2024-159365NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-159365NB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The adrenal glands are central regulators of endocrine function and stress physiology, yet detailed species-specific anatomical baselines remain limited in cetaceans. This study provides a comprehensive gross, histological, morphometric, and ultrastructural characterization of the adrenal glands in 55 short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) examined postmortem in the Canary Islands. Adrenal glands were evaluated macroscopically and microscopically, and histological corticomedullary ratios were calculated from mid-transverse sections. Associations with body length, sexual maturity, and cause-of-death category were assessed statistically. Transmission electron microscopy was used to characterize cortical and medullary cellular ultrastructure. Adrenal weight showed a positive correlation with body length. The histological corticomedullary ratio showed no lateral asymmetry but differed significantly between sexually immature and mature individuals, indicating ontogenetic remodeling of adrenal architecture. In contrast, the corticomedullary ratio did not differ significantly between adult dolphins that died from acute events and those that died following more progressive pathological conditions. Ultrastructural analysis identified characteristic steroidogenic cortical cells and two distinct chromaffin cell populations in the medulla. These findings establish the first integrated anatomical baseline for the adrenal gland in Delphinus delphis, providing essential reference data for comparative anatomy, veterinary pathology, and the interpretation of endocrine-related findings in cetaceans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13040348","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T14:09:54Z","timestamp":1775138994000},"page":"348","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Morphological, Histological and Ultrastructural Characterization of the Common Dolphin\u2019s Adrenal Glands"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2758-8927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Alonso-Almorox","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Anatomy, University of Cordoba, 14014 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfonso","family":"Blanco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Anatomy, University of Cordoba, 14014 Cordoba, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3679-9331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignacio","family":"Molpeceres-Diego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5491-5981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raiden","family":"Grand\u00eda-Guzm\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1898-6181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Llin\u00e1s Rueda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1623-5010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Arbelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5281-0521","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Atlantic Center for Cetacean Research (CAIC), Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Trasmonta\u00f1a s\/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"245","article-title":"The Role of the Adrenal Gland in Homeostasis","volume":"39","author":"Vogt","year":"1954","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Physiol. Cogn. Med. Sci. Transl. Integr."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"95","article-title":"The Adrenal Glands and Their Functions","volume":"52","author":"Wijesiriwardene","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ceylon Med. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R83","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00907.2006","article-title":"The Principle of Homeostasis in the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal System: New Insight from Positive Feedback","volume":"293","author":"Peters","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"485","article-title":"The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis: What Can It Tell Us about Stressors?","volume":"5","author":"Armario","year":"2006","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord.-Drug Targets (Former. Curr. Drug Targets-CNS Neurol. Disord.)"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1159\/000216184","article-title":"Regulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis","volume":"16","author":"Papadimitriou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroimmunomodulation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.1402320332","article-title":"Stress and Adrenal Function","volume":"232","author":"Harvey","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0739-7240(02)00146-7","article-title":"Hormones as Indicators of Stress","volume":"23","author":"Palme","year":"2002","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"112","article-title":"Stress Hormones and Immune Function","volume":"1148","author":"Bornstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Elsevier"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3999(02)00429-4","article-title":"Hypothalamic\u2013Pituitary\u2013Adrenal Axis, Neuroendocrine Factors and Stress","volume":"53","author":"Tsigos","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medina Santana, C., Slattery, O., O\u2019Donovan, J., and Murphy, S. (2025). Histological and Proteomic Approaches to Assessing the Adrenal Stress Response in Common Dolphins (Delphinus delphis). Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15192924"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2017.07.026","article-title":"Adrenal Responses of Large Whales: Integrating Fecal Aldosterone as a Complementary Biomarker to Glucocorticoids","volume":"252","author":"Burgess","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-326X(93)90532-O","article-title":"Adrenocortical Hyperplasia, Disease and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)","volume":"26","author":"Kuiken","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dolphin Thyroid and Adrenal Hormones: Circulating Levels in Wild and Semidomesticated Tursiops Truncatus, and Influence of Sex, Age, and Season","volume":"12","author":"Ridgway","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mar. Mamm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-6109(05)70412-6","article-title":"Surgical Anatomy and Embryology of the Adrenal Glands","volume":"80","author":"Avisse","year":"2000","journal-title":"Surg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"107","article-title":"A Study of Adrenal Cortex Morphology","volume":"12","author":"Zwemer","year":"1936","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-595X(85)80078-5","article-title":"Histopathology of the Human Adrenal Cortex","volume":"14","author":"Neville","year":"1985","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00492782","article-title":"Morphology and Histochemistry of the Adrenal Medulla: I. Various Types of Primary Catecholamine-Storing Cells in the Mouse Adrenal Medulla","volume":"50","author":"Gorgas","year":"1976","journal-title":"Histochemistry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/00236772211044352","article-title":"Adrenal Glands of Mice and Rats: A Comparative Morphometric Study","volume":"56","author":"Siasios","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1006\/gcen.1997.7005","article-title":"Adrenocortical and Adrenomedullary Homologs in Eight Species of Adult and Developing Teleosts: Morphology, Histology, and Immunohistochemistry","volume":"108","author":"Milano","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barszcz, K., Przespolewska, H., Olbrych, K., Czopowicz, M., Kle\u0107kowska-Nawrot, J., Go\u017adziewska-Har\u0142ajczuk, K., and Kupczy\u0144ska, M. (2016). The Morphology of the Adrenal Gland in the European Bison (Bison bonasus). BMC Vet. Res., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-016-0783-8"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3724\/issn1000-3207-1988-1-59-s","article-title":"The Adrenal Gland of Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer)","volume":"12","author":"Zhongjie","year":"1988","journal-title":"Acta Hydrobiol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Bourne, G.H. (1949). The Mammalian Adrenal Gland, Clarendon Press."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Jacobsen, A.P. (1941). Endocrinological Studies in the Blue Whale: (Balaenoptera musculus L.), I kommisjon hos Jacob Dybwad."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2009.00981.x","article-title":"Histological Structure of the Adrenal Gland of the Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) from the Adriatic Sea","volume":"39","author":"Galov","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. C Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2004.00600.x","article-title":"Morphology and Histology of the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Adrenal Gland with Emphasis on the Medulla","volume":"34","author":"Clark","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. C Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2007.00821.x","article-title":"A Morphological and Histological Examination of the Pan-Tropical Spotted Dolphin (Stenella attenuata) and the Spinner Dolphin (Stenella longirostris) Adrenal Gland","volume":"37","author":"Clark","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. C Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-6480(87)90041-4","article-title":"The Adrenal Gland of Stranded Whales (Kogia breviceps and Mesoplodon europaeus): Morphology, Hormonal Contents, and Biosynthesis of Corticosteroids","volume":"68","author":"Carballeira","year":"1987","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Simpson, J.G., and Gardner, M.B. (1972). Comparative Microscopic Anatomy of Selected Marine Mammals. Mamm. Sea Biol. Med., 298\u2013418."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2006.07.005","article-title":"Morphological Changes in the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Adrenal Gland Associated with Chronic Stress","volume":"135","author":"Clark","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-009-1152-y","article-title":"Distribution of Common Dolphins (Delphinus Spp.) in the Western Atlantic Ocean: A Critical Re-Examination","volume":"156","author":"Jefferson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.1988.tb00194.x","article-title":"The Distribution of White-Sided (Lagenorhynchus acutus) and Common Dolphins (Delphinus delphis) vs. Environmental Features of the Continental Shelf of the Northeastern United States","volume":"4","author":"Selzer","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mar. Mamm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"143","article-title":"Anatomical and Histological Characteristics of the Pituitary Gland in the Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) from the Adriatic Sea","volume":"81","author":"Galov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Arh."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonso-Almorox, P., Blanco, A., Fiorito, C., G\u00f3mez-Villamandos, J.C., Risalde, M.A., Almunia, J., and Fern\u00e1ndez, A. (2025). The Orca (Orcinus orca) Pituitary Gland: An Anatomical, Immunohistochemical and Ultrastructural Analysis. Front. Neuroanat., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2025.1626079"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonso-Almorox, P., Blanco, A., Fiorito, C., Sierra, E., Su\u00e1rez-Santana, C., Consolli, F., Arbelo, M., Guzm\u00e1n, R.G., Molpeceres-Diego, I., and Fern\u00e1ndez G\u00f3mez, A. (2025). Dolphin Pituitary Gland: Immunohistochemistry and Ultrastructural Cell Characterization Following a Novel Anatomical Dissection Protocol and Non-Invasive Imaging (MRI). Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15050735"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Kuiken, T., and Garc\u00eda-Hartmann, M. (1991). Proceedings of the First European Cetacean Society Workshop on Cetacean Pathology: Dissection Techniques and Tissue Sampling. Proceedings of the ECS Newsletter, European Cetacean Society. Special Issue."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Geraci, J.R., and Lounsbury, V.J. (2005). Marine Mammals Ashore: A Field Guide for Strandings, National Aquarium Baltimore."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reynolds, J.E., and Rommel, S.A. (2018). Anatomical Dissection: Thorax and Abdomen. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-804327-1.00259-4"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rommel, S.A., and Lowenstine, L.J. (2001). Gross and Microscopic Anatomy. CRC Hanbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420041637.sec2"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0264.2010.01034.x","article-title":"Adrenal Glands of Slaughtered Bulls, Heifers and Cows: A Histological Study","volume":"40","author":"Jelinek","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. C Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.1091550413","article-title":"Observations on the Pilot Whale Globicephala Melaena: Organweight and Growth","volume":"155","author":"Cowan","year":"1966","journal-title":"Anat. Rec."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Nicolaides, N.C., Willenberg, H.S., Bornstein, S.R., and Chrousos, G.P. (2023). Adrenal Cortex: Embryonic Development, Anatomy, Histology and Physiology. Endotext [Internet], MDText.com, Inc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.56.661.806","article-title":"Ectopic Adrenal Tissue in Adults","volume":"56","author":"Anderson","year":"1980","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-5748(03)00030-3","article-title":"The Postnatal Development of the Hypothalamic\u2013Pituitary\u2013Adrenal Axis in the Mouse","volume":"21","author":"Schmidt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.76.1.12","article-title":"Functional and Morphological Characterization of Isolated Bovine Adrenal Medullary Cells","volume":"76","author":"Fenwick","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"213","article-title":"Electron Microscopic Observation on the Adrenal Medulla and Extra-Adrenal Chromaffin Tissue of the Postnatal Rabbit","volume":"106","author":"Coupland","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"231","article-title":"Electron Microscopic Observations on the Structure of the Rat Adrenal Medulla: I. The Ultrastructure and Organization of Chromaffin Cells in the Normal Adrenal Medulla","volume":"99","author":"Coupland","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"225","article-title":"Intimate Contact of Chromaffin and Cortical Cells within the Human Adrenal Gland Forms the Cellular Basis for Important Intraadrenal Interactions","volume":"78","author":"Bornstein","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0029(19970315)36:6<520::AID-JEMT9>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Morphological and Functional Studies of the Paracrine Interaction between Cortex and Medulla in the Adrenal Gland","volume":"36","author":"Bornstein","year":"1997","journal-title":"Microsc. Res. Tech."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.135.1.8013381","article-title":"A Novel Cell Layer without Corticosteroid-Synthesizing Enzymes in Rat Adrenal Cortex: Histochemical Detection and Possible Physiological Role","volume":"135","author":"Mitani","year":"1994","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"188","article-title":"The Adrenal Gland of the African Buffalo, Syncerus Caffer: A Light and Electron Microscopic Study","volume":"28","author":"Teixeira","year":"1993","journal-title":"Afr. Zool."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1455","DOI":"10.4067\/S0717-95022016000400045","article-title":"Histology and Histochemistry of the Adrenal Gland African Giant Rat (Cricetomys gambianus, Waterhouse)","volume":"34","author":"Olukole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"367","article-title":"Expression of Stanniocalcin in Zona Glomerulosa and Medulla of Normal Human Adrenal Glands, and Some Adrenal Tumors and Cell Lines","volume":"108","author":"Miura","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00211819","article-title":"Chromogranin A Immunoreactivity and Grimelius\u2019 Argyrophilia. A Correlative Study in Mammalian Endocrine Cells","volume":"185","author":"Cetin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anat. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(96)12712-9","article-title":"Differences in the Composition of Chromaffin Granules in Adrenaline and Noradrenaline Containing Cells of Bovine Adrenal Medulla","volume":"211","author":"Weiss","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2019.tb00098.x","article-title":"Chromaffin Cells of the Adrenal Medulla: Physiology, Pharmacology, and Disease","volume":"9","author":"Carbone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"181","article-title":"Morphological and Histological Investigations on the Adrenal Glands in Black Bengal Goat (Capra Hircus)","volume":"3","author":"Paul","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sylhet Agric. Univ."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdellatif, A.B., Fernandes-Rosa, F.L., Boulkroun, S., and Zennaro, M.C. (2022). Vascular and Hormonal Interactions in the Adrenal Gland. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.995228"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3566","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2007-0560","article-title":"Regulation of Adrenal Arterial Tone by Adrenocorticotropin: The Plot Thickens","volume":"148","year":"2007","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1050285","article-title":"The Mammalian Adrenal Circulation and the Relationship between Adrenal Blood Flow and Steroidogenesis","volume":"105","author":"Vinson","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"coz027","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/coz027","article-title":"Conserving Wildlife in a Changing World: Understanding Capture Myopathy\u2014A Malignant Outcome of Stress during Capture and Translocation","volume":"7","author":"Breed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1578\/AM.32.1.2006.46","article-title":"Organ Weights and Growth Profiles in Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico","volume":"32","author":"Turner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquat. Mamm."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2010.10.009","article-title":"Adrenal Cortex Ontogenesis","volume":"24","author":"Lalli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Venn-Watson, S., Colegrove, K.M., Litz, J., Kinsel, M., Terio, K., Saliki, J., Fire, S., Carmichael, R., Chevis, C., and Hatchett, W. (2015). Adrenal Gland and Lung Lesions in Gulf of Mexico Common Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) Found Dead Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126538"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-33.3.430","article-title":"Adrenal Hyperplastic and Degenerative Changes in Beluga Whales","volume":"33","author":"Lair","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4530(93)90056-Q","article-title":"Effect of Regularity of Exposure to Chronic Immobilization Stress on the Circadian Pattern of Pituitary Adrenal Hormones, Growth Hormone, and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone in the Adult Male Rat","volume":"18","author":"Armario","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"965","article-title":"Chronic Stress Induces Adrenal Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy in a Subregion-Specific Manner","volume":"291","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4225","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01280","article-title":"Effect of Acute Heat Stress on Rat Adrenal Glands: A Morphological and Stereological Study","volume":"207","author":"Koko","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2019.04.006","article-title":"The Adrenal Gland in Stress\u2014Adaptation on a Cellular Level","volume":"190","author":"Berger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160242","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0242","article-title":"Developmental Stress and Social Phenotypes: Integrating Neuroendocrine, Behavioural and Evolutionary Perspectives","volume":"372","author":"Spencer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1385\/ENDO:28:3:263","article-title":"Corticosteroid Receptor Genetic Polymorphisms and Stress Responsivity","volume":"28","author":"DeRijk","year":"2005","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"pt5","article-title":"Primary Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance and Hypersensitivity: The End-Organ Involvement in the Stress Response","volume":"5","author":"Charmandari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Signal."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kinlein, S., and Karatsoreos, I.N. (2020). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis as a Substrate for Stress Resilience: Interactions with the Circadian Clock. Front. Neuroendocrinol., 56.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2019.100819"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2016.tb00694.x","article-title":"Regulation of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical Stress Response","volume":"6","author":"Herman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.vh.2023.12.004","article-title":"Aging of the Adrenal Gland and Its Impact on the Stress Response","volume":"124","author":"Yiallouris","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, N., Li, Y., Lu, Y., Zhang, K., Wang, S., and Wang, C. (2025). The Impact of Chronic Stress on Cortical Thickness in Patients with Depression. Front. Psychiatry, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1554476"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2013.12.019","article-title":"The Contribution of Stranding Data to Monitoring and Conservation Strategies for Cetaceans: Developing Spatially Explicit Mortality Indicators for Common Dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in the Eastern North-Atlantic","volume":"39","author":"Peltier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1111\/mms.12610","article-title":"What Can Cetacean Stranding Records Tell Us? A Study of UK and Irish Cetacean Diversity over the Past 100 Years","volume":"35","author":"Coombs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Mamm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02558","article-title":"Pathology and Causes of Death of Stranded Cetaceans in the Canary Islands (1999\u20132005)","volume":"103","author":"Arbelo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dis. Aquat. Organ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e72119","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.72119","article-title":"The Dead Do Tell Tales: Using Pathology Data From Cetacean Necropsy Reports to Gain Insights Into Animal Health","volume":"15","author":"Lennon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0029(19970315)36:6<445::AID-JEMT2>3.0.CO;2-H","article-title":"Light and Electron Microscopic Immunohistochemistry of the Localization of Adrenal Steroidogenic Enzymes","volume":"36","author":"Ishimura","year":"1997","journal-title":"Microsc. Res. Tech."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"115","article-title":"Ultrastructural Zonation of the Human Adrenal Cortex","volume":"19","author":"Kawaoi","year":"1969","journal-title":"Acta Pathol. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-8165(74)80044-2","article-title":"Ultrastructure and Function of the Mesenchyme of the Rat Adrenal Cortex","volume":"151","year":"1974","journal-title":"Beitr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pihlajoki, M., D\u00f6rner, J., Cochran, R.S., Heikinheimo, M., and Wilson, D.B. (2015). Adrenocortical Zonation, Renewal, and Remodeling. Front. Endocrinol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2015.00027"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0885-40","article-title":"The Adrenal Chromaffin Cell","volume":"253","author":"Carmichael","year":"1985","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(76)90001-4","article-title":"The Composition of Adrenal Chromaffin Granules: An Assessment of Controversial Results","volume":"1","author":"Winkler","year":"1976","journal-title":"Neuroscience"}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/13\/4\/348\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T04:43:27Z","timestamp":1775277807000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/13\/4\/348"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci13040348"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci13040348","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]]}}}