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Sci.","Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vacuum freeze-drying, commonly referred to as lyophilization, is one of the primary processes in vaccine industrial manufacturing. It offers significant advantages, including a marked extension of the shelf-life of dried products, effective preservation of biological activity, and user convenience. However, in the production of animal freeze-dried vaccines, the diverse nature of antigens, the complexity of heat-stable protectant formulations, and variations in manufacturing equipment pose substantial challenges to process design for animal freeze-dried vaccines. Commercially available animal freeze-dried vaccines commonly suffer from antigen potency loss, insufficient product stability, low production efficiency and high manufacturing costs. Freeze-drying process optimization can markedly improve the quality of freeze-dried vaccines, with key evaluation indicators including vaccine stability, shelf-life, sample morphology, and residual moisture content. Focusing on multiple types of animal vaccines, this review summarizes research advances in improving the quality of animal freeze-dried vaccines from the perspectives of modifying material properties, enhancing freezing-stage regulation, increasing the specific surface area for drying, and optimizing heat conduction. Finally, future research strategies for animal freeze-dried vaccines are prospected. Although numerous approaches have been proposed to enhance the quality of animal freeze-dried vaccines, comprehensive considerations from multiple dimensions are still required to provide more holistic theoretical support for cost reduction and efficiency improvement in the production of animal freeze-dried vaccines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci13090972","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T16:07:29Z","timestamp":1789574849000},"page":"972","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improving the Quality of Lyophilized Animal Vaccines: A Review of Optimization Strategies for Freeze-Drying Processes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Fangjing","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"},{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiajie","family":"Jiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201106, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zexi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"},{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongying","family":"Jie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"China-South Africa Joint Laboratory For Prevention and Control of Major Animal Diseases, Nanjing 210014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiahao","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoxin","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"China-South Africa Joint Laboratory For Prevention and Control of Major Animal Diseases, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"GuoTai (Taizhou) Center of Technology Innovation for Veterinary Biologicals, Taizhou 225300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanhong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"},{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"China-South Africa Joint Laboratory For Prevention and Control of Major Animal Diseases, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"GuoTai (Taizhou) Center of Technology Innovation for Veterinary Biologicals, Taizhou 225300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianhong","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fang","family":"Lyu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China"},{"name":"Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"China-South Africa Joint Laboratory For Prevention and Control of Major Animal Diseases, Nanjing 210014, China"},{"name":"GuoTai (Taizhou) Center of Technology Innovation for Veterinary Biologicals, Taizhou 225300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.105127","article-title":"Freeze-drying for the preservation of immunoengineering products","volume":"25","author":"Kommineni","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.08.085","article-title":"Freeze-drying of live virus vaccines: A review","volume":"33","author":"Hansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"72","article-title":"Application of Vacuum Freeze-drying Technology in the Development and Production of 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