{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T17:02:56Z","timestamp":1790528576988,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["175037"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["175037"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1745411"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1745411"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10328000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10328000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Globally, zoonotic vector-borne diseases are on the rise and understanding their complex transmission cycles is pertinent to mitigating disease risk. In North America, Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector-borne disease and is caused by transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) from Ixodes spp. ticks to a diverse group of vertebrate hosts. Small mammal reservoir hosts are primarily responsible for maintenance of B. burgdorferi s.l. across the United States. Nevertheless, birds can also be parasitized by ticks and are capable of infection with B. burgdorferi s.l. but their role in B. burgdorferi s.l. transmission dynamics is understudied. Birds could be important in both the maintenance and spread of B. burgdorferi s.l. and ticks because of their high mobility and shared habitat with important mammalian reservoir hosts. This study aims to better understand the role of avian hosts in tick-borne zoonotic disease transmission cycles in the western United States. We surveyed birds, mammals, and ticks at nine sites in northern California for B. burgdorferi s.l. infection and collected data on other metrics of host community composition such as abundance and diversity of birds, small mammals, lizards, predators, and ticks. We found 22.8% of birds infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. and that the likelihood of avian B. burgdorferi s.l. infection was significantly associated with local host community composition and pathogen prevalence in California. Additionally, we found an average tick burden of 0.22 ticks per bird across all species. Predator and lizard abundances were significant predictors of avian tick infestation. These results indicate that birds are relevant hosts in the local B. burgdorferi s.l. transmission cycle in the western United States and quantifying their role in the spread and maintenance of Lyme disease requires further research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9020055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,30]],"date-time":"2022-01-30T00:12:56Z","timestamp":1643501576000},"page":"55","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Local Community Composition Drives Avian Borrelia burgdorferi Infection and Tick Infestation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Marie","family":"Lilly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wilmer","family":"Amaya-Mejia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, 612 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucas","family":"Pavan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ceili","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 31 Ames St., Cambridge, MA 02142, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arielle","family":"Crews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"San Mateo County Mosquito and Vector Control District, 1351 Rollins Road, Burlingame, CA 94010, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nghia","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ravinder","family":"Sehgal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4475-4539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Swei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61151-9","article-title":"Drivers, dynamics, and control of emerging vector-borne zoonotic diseases","volume":"380","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6717e1","article-title":"Vital signs: Trends in reported vectorborne disease cases\u2014United States and Territories, 2004\u20132016","volume":"67","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"154","article-title":"Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases: Policies and Strategies for Future","volume":"4","author":"Alizadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Evid. Based Health Policy Manag. Econ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00083-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00083-18","article-title":"Emerging Tick-Borne Diseases","volume":"33","author":"Kramer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"CDC (2021, April 29). Reported Cases of Lyme Disease\u2014United States, 2018, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/lyme\/datasurveillance\/maps-recent.html."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"496","article-title":"Borrelia burgdorferi sp. nov.: Etiologic agent of Lyme disease","volume":"34","author":"Johnson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7043737","article-title":"Lyme disease-a tick-borne spirochetosis?","volume":"216","author":"Burgdorfer","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1985.34.925","article-title":"The western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus: A vector of Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"34","author":"Burgdorfer","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2011.04.002","article-title":"Updates on Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato Complex with Respect to Public Health","volume":"2","author":"Rudenko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crpvbd.2021.100039","article-title":"Unexpected Failure of Ixodes Scapularis Nymphs to Transmit a North American Borrelia Bissettiae Strain","volume":"1","author":"Leydet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Parasitol. Vector-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2009.01498.x","article-title":"Molecular Detection of Borrelia bissettii DNA in Serum Samples from Patients in the Czech Republic with Suspected Borreliosis","volume":"292","author":"Rudenko","year":"2009","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01689-10","article-title":"Genetic Diversity of Borrelia Burgdorferi and Detection of B. bissettii-Like DNA in Serum of North-Coastal California Residents","volume":"49","author":"Girard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.3376\/1081-1710(2007)32[140:VHOIPA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Vertebrate Hosts of Ixodes Pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in California","volume":"32","author":"Castro","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.3.388","article-title":"Western Gray Squirrel (Rodentia: Sciuridae): A Primary Reservoir Host of Borrelia Burgdorferi in Californian Oak Woodlands?","volume":"42","author":"Lane","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newman, E.A., Eisen, L., Eisen, R.J., Fedorova, N., Hasty, J.M., Vaughn, C., and Lane, R.S. (2015). Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato Spirochetes in Wild Birds in Northwestern California: Associations with Ecological Factors, Bird Behavior and Tick Infestation. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118146"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1987.36.92","article-title":"Reservoir Competence of White-Footed Mice for Lyme Disease Spirochetes","volume":"36","author":"Donahue","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2011.0783","article-title":"Impacts of an Introduced Forest Pathogen on the Risk of Lyme Disease in California","volume":"12","author":"Swei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1996.54.84","article-title":"Reservoir Competence of Four Chaparral-Dwelling Rodents for Borrelia Burgdorferi in California","volume":"54","author":"Brown","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"295","article-title":"The roles of birds, lizards, and rodents as hosts for the western black-legged tick Ixodes pacificus","volume":"29","author":"Eisen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol. J. Soc. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.79.535","article-title":"Identifying the reservoir hosts of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi in California: The role of the western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus)","volume":"79","author":"Salkeld","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"627","article-title":"Avian and Mammalian Hosts for Spirochete-Infected Ticks and Insects in a Lyme Disease Focus in Connecticut","volume":"57","author":"Anderson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1890\/090062","article-title":"Do Birds Affect Lyme Disease Risk? Range Expansion of the Vector-borne Pathogen Borrelia Burgdorferi","volume":"9","author":"Brinkerhoff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1006\/mpat.1996.0030","article-title":"Canary Finches (Serinus canaria) as an Avian Infection Model for Lyme Borreliosis","volume":"20","author":"Olsen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.3.445","article-title":"Reservoir Competence of Native North American Birds for the Lyme Disease Spirochete, Borrelia Burgdorferi","volume":"42","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2013.12.011","article-title":"Occurrence and Transmission Efficiencies of Borrelia Burgdorferi OspC Types in Avian and Mammalian Wildlife","volume":"27","author":"Vuong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"91","article-title":"Ecological interactions between songbirds, ticks, and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in Europe","volume":"Volume 4","author":"Braks","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecology and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/S0934-8840(98)80194-1","article-title":"An Avian Reservoir (Turdus merula) of the Lyme Borreliosis Spirochetes","volume":"287","author":"Humair","year":"1998","journal-title":"Zent. F\u00fcr Bakteriol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-019-01442-3","article-title":"Getting under the Birds\u2019 Skin: Tissue Tropism of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in Naturally and Experimentally Infected Avian Hosts","volume":"79","author":"Norte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1207.060127","article-title":"Migratory Passerine Birds as Reservoirs of Lyme Borreliosis in Europe","volume":"12","author":"Comstedt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0602.000205","article-title":"Competence of American Robins as Reservoir Hosts for Lyme Disease Spirochetes","volume":"6","author":"Richter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01982-07","article-title":"Role of Migratory Birds in Introduction and Range Expansion of Ixodes Scapularis Ticks and of Borrelia Burgdorferi and Anaplasma Phagocytophilum in Canada","volume":"74","author":"Ogden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/34.1.52","article-title":"Absence of Lyme Disease Spirochetes in Larval Progeny of Naturally Infected Ixodes Scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Fed on Dogs","volume":"34","author":"Patrican","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0233733100","article-title":"The Ecology of Infectious Disease: Effects of Host Diversity and Community Composition on Lyme Disease Risk","volume":"100","author":"LoGiudice","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0395","article-title":"Human Risk of Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme Disease Agent, in Eastern United States","volume":"86","author":"Hoen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009886","article-title":"Temporal Relation between Ixodes Scapularis Abundance and Risk for Lyme Disease Associated with Erythema Migrans","volume":"149","author":"Falco","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1007\/s10493-012-9583-4","article-title":"Diversity and Seasonal Patterns of Ticks Parasitizing Wild Birds in Western Portugal","volume":"58","author":"Norte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Appl. Acarol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-011-0726-6","article-title":"Effect of Forest Fragmentation on Tick Infestations of Birds and Tick Infection Rates by Rickettsia in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil","volume":"8","author":"Ogrzewalska","year":"2011","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02183","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.2183","article-title":"Patterns of Diversity along a Habitat Size Gradient in a Biodiversity Hotspot","volume":"9","author":"Lawrence","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-38.5.684","article-title":"Life Cycle of Ixodes Pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae): Timing of Developmental Processes under Field and Laboratory Conditions","volume":"38","author":"Padgett","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"The use of mist nets as a tool for bird population monitoring","volume":"29","author":"Dunn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stud. Avian Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Sibley, D. (2000). The North American Bird Guide, A. & C. Black."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Pyle, P., Howell, S., Yunick, R., and Desante, D. (1997). Identification Guide to North American Birds, Slate Creek Press."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2319","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-294X.2001.01339.x","article-title":"Host Specificity and Incidence of Trypanosoma in Some African Rainforest Birds: A Molecular Approach","volume":"10","author":"Sehgal","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2019.10.006","article-title":"Effect of Deforestation on Prevalence of Avian Haemosporidian Parasites and Mosquito Abundance in a Tropical Rainforest of Cameroon","volume":"50","author":"Tchoumbou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1093\/auk\/101.1.173","article-title":"Feather Pulp: A Non-Destructive Sampling Technique for Electrophoretic Studies of Birds","volume":"101","author":"Marsden","year":"1984","journal-title":"Auk"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-021-04851-9","article-title":"Host Infection and Community Composition Predict Vector Burden","volume":"196","author":"Salomon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2970","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.2402","article-title":"Impact of the Experimental Removal of Lizards on Lyme Disease Risk","volume":"278","author":"Swei","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/00063657.2011.586415","article-title":"Monitoring Communities of Small Birds: A Comparison between Mist-Netting and Counting","volume":"58","author":"Arizaga","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bird Study"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v019.i05","article-title":"The Rcapture package: Loglinear models for capture-recapture in R","volume":"19","author":"Baillargeon","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F.G., Friendly, M., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., McGlinn, D., Minchin, P.R., O\u2019Hara, R.B., Simpson, G.L., and Solymos, P. (2019). Vegan: Community Ecology Package, CRAN. Available online: https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=vegan."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2019.09.003","article-title":"Experimental Study of Micro-Habitat Selection by Ixodid Ticks Feeding on Avian Hosts","volume":"49","author":"Fracasso","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1","article-title":"The ticks of California (Acari: Ixodida)","volume":"25","author":"Furman","year":"1984","journal-title":"Bull. Calif. Insect Surv."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3956\/2007-38.1","article-title":"Larval Keys to the Genera of Ixodidae (Acari) and Species of Ixodes (Latreille) Ticks Established in California","volume":"84","author":"Kleinjan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pan-Pac. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1093\/jisesa\/ieaa073","article-title":"A Beginner\u2019s Guide to Collecting Questing Hard Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae): A Standardized Tick Dragging Protocol","volume":"20","author":"Salomon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Insect Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-41.2.239","article-title":"Human Behaviors Elevating Exposure to Ixodes Pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) Nymphs and Their Associated Bacterial Zoonotic Agents in a Hardwood Forest","volume":"41","author":"Lane","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.7550\/rmb.38023","article-title":"A Hierarchical Classification of Trophic Guilds for North American Birds and Mammals","volume":"85","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Mex. De Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","article-title":"glmmTMB Balances Speed and Flexibility among Packages for Zero-inflated Generalized Linear Mixed Modeling","volume":"9","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"R J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12050","article-title":"Predicting the Rate of Invasion of the Agent of Lyme Disease Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"50","author":"Ogden","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"California Department of Fish and Wildlife (2021, October 10). Life History and Range, Available online: https:\/\/wildlife.ca.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-016-3731-1","article-title":"A Quantitative Synthesis of the Role of Birds in Carrying Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in North America","volume":"182","author":"Loss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2021.101650","article-title":"Passerine Birds as Hosts for Ixodes Ticks Infected with Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Stricto in Southeastern Virginia","volume":"12","author":"Cumbie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1547096","article-title":"Life History Characteristics of Birds Influence Patterns of Tick Parasitism","volume":"9","author":"Brinkerhoff","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.2307\/1383287","article-title":"The Ecology of Fear: Optimal Foraging, Game Theory, and Trophic Interactions","volume":"80","author":"Brown","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"710","article-title":"The Macroecology and Evolution of Avian Competence for Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"30","author":"Becker","year":"2021","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.166","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Patterns of Host-Seeking Ixodes Scapularis Nymphs (Acari: Ixodidae) in the United States","volume":"43","author":"Gatewood","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2019.01.001","article-title":"Nymphal Ixodes scapularis Questing Behavior Explains Geographic Variation in Lyme Borreliosis Risk in the Eastern United States","volume":"10","author":"Arsnoe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjy133","article-title":"Questing Behavior and Analysis of Tick-Borne Bacteria in Ixodes Scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in Oklahoma","volume":"55","author":"Dubie","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomkins, J.L., Aungier, J., Hazel, W., and Gilbert, L. (2014). Towards an Evolutionary Understanding of Questing Behaviour in the Tick Ixodes Ricinus. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110028"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00323534","article-title":"Effects of Predation-Risk on Habitat Use by Himalayan Snowcocks","volume":"82","author":"Bland","year":"1990","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Caro, T. (2005). Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"460","article-title":"How Does the Presence of Predators Influence the Persistence of Antipredator Behavior?","volume":"239","author":"Blumstein","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/arh031","article-title":"Rodent Foraging Is Affected by Indirect, but Not by Direct, Cues of Predation Risk","volume":"15","author":"Orrock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lilly, M.V., Lucore, E.C., and Tarvin, K.A. (2019). Eavesdropping Grey Squirrels Infer Safety from Bird Chatter. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221279"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clermont, J., Grenier-Potvin, A., Duchesne, \u00c9., Couchoux, C., Dulude-de Broin, F., Beardsell, A., B\u00eaty, J., and Berteaux, D. (2021). The Predator Activity Landscape Predicts the Anti-predator Behavior and Distribution of Prey in a Tundra Community. Ecosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.3858"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.1.1.5","article-title":"Birds, Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and Enteropathogens","volume":"1","author":"Reed","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Sellers, J. (2011). Tick Infestations and Their Consequences for Migratory Songbirds during Spring Stopover. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Southern Mississippi]."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12047","article-title":"Immunity, Resistance and Tolerance in Bird-Parasite Interactions","volume":"35","author":"Sorci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12191","article-title":"Immune Responses of Wild Birds to Emerging Infectious Diseases","volume":"37","author":"Staley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-018-1332-7","article-title":"Parasite Tolerance and Host Competence in Avian Host Defense to West Nile Virus","volume":"15","author":"Burgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2014.04.011","article-title":"Distribution, Diversity and Drivers of Blood-Borne Parasite Co-Infections in Alaskan Bird Populations","volume":"44","author":"Oakgrove","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.2307\/3802590","article-title":"Between-Habitat Movement of Dusky-Footed Woodrats and Vulnerability to Predation","volume":"61","author":"Sakai","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1038\/35001663","article-title":"Reactivation of Borrelia Infection in Birds","volume":"403","author":"Gylfe","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.104.028738","article-title":"OspC Diversity in Borrelia Burgdorferi","volume":"168","author":"Brisson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.4.1169-1174.1998","article-title":"Differential Transmission of the Genospecies of Borrelia Burgdorferi Sensu Lato by Game Birds and Small Rodents in England","volume":"64","author":"Kurtenbach","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02479-10","article-title":"Diverse Borrelia Burgdorferi Strains in a Bird-Tick Cryptic Cycle","volume":"77","author":"Hamer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.2009.05680.x","article-title":"How Far Do Songbirds Disperse?","volume":"32","author":"Tittler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"374","article-title":"Habitat Use and Flock Activity of Dark-Eyed Juncos in Winter","volume":"87","author":"Gottfried","year":"1975","journal-title":"Wilson Bull."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"duaa064","article-title":"The Colorado River Delta and California\u2019s Central Valley Are Critical Regions for Many Migrating North American Landbirds","volume":"123","author":"DeLuca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ornithol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1676\/11-189.1","article-title":"Estimation of Female Home-Range Size during the Nestling Period of Dark-Eyed Juncos","volume":"124","author":"Reichard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wilson J. Ornithol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2013.00048","article-title":"Transport of Ixodid Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens by Migratory Birds","volume":"3","author":"Hasle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-002-1140-0","article-title":"Positive Interactions between Migrant and Resident Birds: Testing the Heterospecific Attraction Hypothesis","volume":"134","author":"Thomson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Oecologia"}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/9\/2\/55\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:11:00Z","timestamp":1760134260000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/9\/2\/55"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci9020055"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci9020055","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]]}}}