{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T02:00:05Z","timestamp":1793412005036,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":168,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,10]],"date-time":"2022-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665360000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Substantial morbidity results from pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID) which is often underestimated by owners and veterinarians. Clinical signs, pathophysiology, diagnostic tests, and treatment protocols of this condition are reviewed. The importance of improved recognition of early clinical signs and diagnosis are highlighted, as initiation of treatment will result in improved quality of life. Future research should be targeted at improving the accuracy of the diagnosis of PPID, as basal adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentration can lack sensitivity and thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) used to assess ACTH response to TRH stimulation is not commercially available as a sterile registered product in many countries. The relationship between PPID and insulin dysregulation and its association with laminitis, as well as additional management practices and long-term responses to treatment with pergolide also require further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9100556","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T02:10:27Z","timestamp":1665540627000},"page":"556","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID) in Horses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1808-4014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naomi C.","family":"Kirkwood","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8405-6268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristopher J.","family":"Hughes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2464-3954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allison J.","family":"Stewart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Science, Gatton Campus, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12160","article-title":"Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: Diagnosis and treatment","volume":"26","author":"Durham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16017","article-title":"Clinical implications of using adrenocorticotropic hormone diagnostic cutoffs or reference intervals to diagnose pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in mature horses","volume":"35","author":"Horn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.03.002","article-title":"Epidemiology of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: A systematic literature review of clinical presentation, disease prevalence and risk factors","volume":"235","author":"Ireland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2012.00578.x","article-title":"Prevalence, risk factors and clinical signs predictive for equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in aged horses","volume":"45","author":"McGowan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"293","article-title":"Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: Current perspectives on diagnosis and management","volume":"6","author":"Spelta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Med. (Auckl.)"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(02)00018-4","article-title":"Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: Equine Cushing\u2019s disease","volume":"18","author":"Schott","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2010.12.007","article-title":"Equine Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction","volume":"27","author":"McFarlane","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2021.105656","article-title":"Translating research into practice: Adoption of endocrine diagnostic testing in cases of equine laminitis","volume":"272","author":"Ireland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13405","article-title":"Science-in-brief: Report on the Global Equine Endocrinology Symposium","volume":"53","author":"Bennett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Berne, R., Levy, M., Koeppew, B., and Stanton, B. (1998). The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland, Mosby."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Malven, P. (,  1997). Pituitary gland neuroendocrinology. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Forum of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-124-5-2208","article-title":"Regulation and secretion of proopiomelanocortin peptides from isolated perifused dog pituitary pars intermedia cells","volume":"124","author":"Kemppainen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1999.60.02.245","article-title":"Regulation of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone secretion from the pars intermedia of domestic cats","volume":"60","author":"Kemppainen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2005.01277.x","article-title":"Nitration and increased \u03b1-synuclein expression associated with dopaminergic neurodegeneration in equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"17","author":"McFarlane","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carmalt, J.L., Mortazavi, S., McOnie, R.C., Allen, A.L., and Unniappan, S. (2018). Profiles of pro-opiomelanocortin and encoded peptides, and their processing enzymes in equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190796"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1177\/030098589902700606","article-title":"Immunocytochemical demonstration of proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides in pituitary adenomas of the pars intermedia in horses","volume":"27","author":"Heinrichs","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-110-4-1430","article-title":"Equine Cushing\u2019s disease: Plasma immunoreactive proopiolipomelanocortin peptide and cortisol levels basally and in response to diagnostic tests","volume":"110","author":"Orth","year":"1982","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-110-3-941","article-title":"Proopiolipomelanocortin peptides in normal pituitary, pituitary tumor, and plasma of normal and Cushing\u2019s horses","volume":"110","author":"Wilson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1294\/jes.12.119","article-title":"Spontaneous Pituitary Adenomas of the Pars Intermedia in 5 Aged Horses: Histopathological, Immunohistochemical and Ultrastructural Studies","volume":"12","author":"Yoshikawa","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Equine Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2003-1287","article-title":"Subcellular Pathways of \u03b2-Endorphin Synthesis, Processing, and Release from Immunocytes in Inflammatory Pain","volume":"145","author":"Mousa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2005.07.005","article-title":"Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone release in response to thyrotropin releasing hormone in healthy horses, horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and equine pars intermedia explants","volume":"30","author":"McFarlane","year":"2006","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2017.08.018","article-title":"Is There an Interplay Between the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axes During Exercise-Stress Coping in Horses?","volume":"62","author":"Ferlazzo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"109","article-title":"Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone in Adult Euthyroid and Hypothyroid Horses","volume":"16","author":"Breuhaus","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2019.01.008","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone and Thyrotropin Concentrations and Responses to Thyrotropin-Stimulating Hormone in Horses with PPID Compared with Age-Matched Normal Horses","volume":"75","author":"Breuhaus","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.05.033","article-title":"Serum thyroid hormone, insulin, glucose, triglycerides and protein concentrations in normal horses: Association with topical dexamethasone usage","volume":"188","author":"Abraham","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Robinson, N.E., and Sprayberry, K.A. (2015). Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction. Robinson\u2019s Current Therapy in Equine Medicine, Elsevier Inc.. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2005.tb02685.x","article-title":"Variation in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentration and dexamethasone suppression test results with season, age, and sex in healthy ponies and horses","volume":"19","author":"Donaldson","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.241.2.241","article-title":"Seasonal variation in results of diagnostic tests for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in older, clinically normal geldings","volume":"241","author":"Schreiber","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1111\/avj.12716","article-title":"Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: Current understanding and recommendations from the Australian and New Zealand Equine Endocrine Group","volume":"96","author":"Secombe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15620","article-title":"Cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations in horses with systemic inflammatory response syndrome","volume":"33","author":"Stewart","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2012.00575.x","article-title":"Evaluation of basal plasma \u03b1-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotrophic hormone concentrations for the diagnosis of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction from a population of aged horses","volume":"45","author":"Pinchbeck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13292","article-title":"Clinically and temporally specific diagnostic thresholds for plasma ACTH in the horse","volume":"53","author":"Durham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2007.02.001","article-title":"Advantages and limitations of the equine disease, pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction as a model of spontaneous dopaminergic neurodegenerative disease","volume":"6","author":"McFarlane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2005.66.2065","article-title":"Systemic and pituitary pars intermedia antioxidant capacity associated with pars intermedia oxidative stress and dysfunction in horses","volume":"66","author":"McFarlane","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGowan, C. (2013). Hyperadrenocorticism (Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction) in Horses, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118997093.ch11"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2021.105695","article-title":"Evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of basal plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone concentration for diagnosing pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses: A systematic review","volume":"275","author":"Tatum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12237","article-title":"Pathophysiology and clinical features of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"26","author":"McFarlane","year":"2014","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2022.08.018","article-title":"Correlation of pituitary histomorphometry with dopamine and dopamine D2 receptor expression in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"152","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/S0361-9230(01)00471-3","article-title":"The mammalian pituitary intermediate lobe: An update on innervation and regulation","volume":"54","author":"Saland","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.231.3.417","article-title":"Adrenocorticotropin concentration following administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in healthy horses and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and pituitary gland hyperplasia","volume":"231","author":"Beech","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1431","article-title":"Bioactivity of plasma ACTH from PPID-affected horses compared to normal horses","volume":"25","author":"Cordero","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2011.00810.x","article-title":"Comparison of cortisol and ACTH responses after administration of thyrotropin releasing hormone in normal horses and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"25","author":"Beech","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3791","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2018-00726","article-title":"Dysregulation of cortisol metabolism in equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"159","author":"Morgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1994.204.04.627","article-title":"Diagnostic testing for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses","volume":"204","author":"Dybdal","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16036","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95396-7","article-title":"Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: A spontaneous model of synucleinopathy","volume":"11","author":"Fortin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(01)00019-3","article-title":"Oxidative stress induced-neurodegenerative diseases: The need for antioxidants that penetrate the blood brain barrier","volume":"40","author":"Melamed","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13041","article-title":"Factors associated with survival, laminitis and insulin dysregulation in horses diagnosed with equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"51","author":"Horn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1996.tb02016.x","article-title":"Plasma adrenocorticotropin concentration in healthy horses and in horses with clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism","volume":"10","author":"Paradis","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"212-e247","article-title":"Comparison of hair follicle histology between horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and excessive hair growth and normal aged horses","volume":"24","author":"Petersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"594","article-title":"Equine pituitary neoplasia: A clinical report of 21 cases (1990-1992)","volume":"133","author":"Kalsbeek","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.1463","article-title":"Effects of season and sample handling on measurement of plasma \u03b1-melanocyte-stimulating hormone concentrations in horses and ponies","volume":"65","author":"McFarlane","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2003.223.93","article-title":"Demographic and clinical characteristics of geriatric horses: 467 cases (1989\u20131999)","volume":"223","author":"Brosnahan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.149.14.417","article-title":"Sentinel practice-based survey of the management and health of horses in northern Britain","volume":"149","author":"Mellor","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Hart, K., Durham, A., Frank, N., McGowan, C., Schott, H., and Stewart, A.J. (2021, November 11). EEG Recommendations on Diagnosis and Management of Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID). Available online: https:\/\/sites.tufts.edu\/equineendogroup\/files\/2021\/12\/2021-PPID-Recommendations-V11-wo-insert.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sillence, M., Meier, A., de Laat, M., Klee, R., and Reiche, D. (2022). Demographic, morphologic, hormonal and metabolic factors associated with the rate of improvement from equine hyperinsulinaemia-associated laminitis. BMC Vet. Res., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-022-03149-z"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2007.07.003","article-title":"Induction of laminitis by prolonged hyperinsulinaemia in clinically normal ponies","volume":"174","author":"Asplin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.2746\/042516409X475779","article-title":"Equine laminitis: Induced by 48 h hyperinsulinaemia in Standardbred horses","volume":"42","author":"McGowan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2019.04.004","article-title":"Ultrastructural examination of basement membrane pathology in horses with insulin-induced laminitis","volume":"69","author":"Pollitt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.2746\/042516409X407648","article-title":"Equine laminitis: Ultrastructural lesions detected in ponies following hyperinsulinaemia","volume":"41","author":"Nourian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13072","article-title":"Continuous digital hypothermia prevents lamellar failure in the euglycaemic hyperinsulinaemic clamp model of equine laminitis","volume":"51","author":"Stokes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.75.2.161","article-title":"Morphological and cellular changes in secondary epidermal laminae of horses with insulin-induced laminitis","volume":"75","author":"Karikoski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12450","article-title":"Lamellar pathology in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"48","author":"Karikoski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2021.110207","article-title":"Investigation of innate immune function in adult and geriatric horses","volume":"235","author":"Miller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2746\/0425164044877288","article-title":"Serum insulin concentrations in horses with equine Cushing\u2019s syndrome: Response to a cortisol inhibitor and prognostic value","volume":"36","author":"McGowan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12963","article-title":"Association between hyperinsulinaemia and laminitis severity at the time of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction diagnosis","volume":"51","author":"Tadros","year":"2019","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2010.0547.x","article-title":"Association of season and pasture grazing with blood hormone and metabolite concentrations in horses with presumed pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"24","author":"Frank","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.13839","article-title":"Effect of age, season, body condition, and endocrine status on serum free cortisol fraction and insulin concentration in horses","volume":"30","author":"Hart","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2017.10.005","article-title":"Effect of dietary carbohydrates and time of year on ACTH and cortisol concentrations in adult and aged horses","volume":"63","author":"Jacob","year":"2018","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2014.07.003","article-title":"Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction does not necessarily impair insulin sensitivity in old horses","volume":"50","author":"Mastro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12812","article-title":"Effects of age and diet on glucose and insulin dynamics in the horse","volume":"50","author":"Rapson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galinelli, N., Bailey, S., Bamford, N., and Harris, P. (2021). Nutritional considerations for the management of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. Equine Vet. Educ.","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13593"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2004.01.013","article-title":"Owners\u2019 perceptions of the health and performance of Pony Club horses in Australia","volume":"63","author":"Buckley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2010.00361.x","article-title":"Disease prevalence in geriatric horses in the United Kingdom: Veterinary clinical assessment of 200 cases","volume":"44","author":"Ireland","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2006.07.019","article-title":"Myopathy in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (Cushing\u2019s disease)","volume":"16","author":"Aleman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2021.106620","article-title":"Markers of muscle atrophy and impact of treatment with pergolide in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and muscle atrophy","volume":"76","author":"Banse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.71.6.664","article-title":"Gene expression of proteolytic systems and growth regulators of skeletal muscle in horses with myopathy associated with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"71","author":"Aleman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.75.7.658","article-title":"Whole-body phenylalanine kinetics and skeletal muscle protein signaling in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"75","author":"Mastro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2021.103771","article-title":"Development and Evaluation of a Muscle Atrophy Scoring System (MASS) for Horses","volume":"110","author":"Herbst","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3292.1992.tb01595.x","article-title":"Diagnosis of hyperadrenocorticism in the horse","volume":"4","author":"Hillyer","year":"1992","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.2746\/042516402776250333","article-title":"Plasma adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) concentrations and clinical response in horses treated for equine Cushing\u2019s disease with cyproheptadine or pergolide","volume":"34","author":"Perkins","year":"2002","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-123-3-1598","article-title":"Equine Cushing\u2019s disease: Differential regulation of beta-endorphin processing in tumors of the intermediate pituitary","volume":"123","author":"Millington","year":"1988","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/0196-9781(96)00037-X","article-title":"The neuropeptide alpha-MSH has specific receptors on neutrophils and reduces chemotaxis in vitro","volume":"17","author":"Catania","year":"1996","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2007.08.001","article-title":"The synthetic melanocortin (CKPV)2 exerts broad anti-inflammatory effects in human neutrophils","volume":"28","author":"Capsoni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2003.11.009","article-title":"The role of cyclooxygenase inhibition in the effect of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on reactive oxygen species production by rat peritoneal neutrophils","volume":"71","author":"Oktar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200535209","article-title":"Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone down-regulates CXC receptors through activation of neutrophil elastase","volume":"36","author":"Manna","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C486","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00419.2006","article-title":"Migration of leukocytes across an endothelium-epithelium bilayer as a model of renal interstitial inflammation","volume":"293","author":"Bijuklic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2015.04.006","article-title":"Neutrophil function in healthy aged horses and horses with pituitary dysfunction","volume":"165","author":"McFarlane","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2020.106531","article-title":"Effects of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and Prascend (pergolide tablets) treatment on endocrine and immune function in horses","volume":"74","author":"Miller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2008.0076.x","article-title":"Cytokine dysregulation in aged horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"22","author":"McFarlane","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2020.106476","article-title":"Effects of advanced age and pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction on components of the acute phase reaction in horses","volume":"72","author":"Zak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"1003","article-title":"Neuroinflammation Induces Neurodegeneration","volume":"1","author":"Kempuraj","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Spine"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2008.11.007","article-title":"A pilot study on the changes in immunity after ACTH therapy in patients with West syndrome","volume":"31","author":"Ohya","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612805666230111194256","article-title":"ACTH and its role in immune-neuroendocrine functions. A comparative study","volume":"5","author":"Ottaviani","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keresztes, M., Horv\u00e1th, T., Ocsovszki, I., F\u00f6ldesi, I., Serf\u0151z\u0151, G., Boda, K., and Ungi, I. (2013). ACTH- and cortisol-associated neutrophil modulation in coronary artery disease patients undergoing stent implantation. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071902"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2008.09.004","article-title":"Advanced age in horses affects divisional history of T cells and inflammatory cytokine production","volume":"129","author":"Adams","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.236.3.330","article-title":"Fecal egg counts after anthelmintic administration to aged horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"236","author":"McFarlane","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.03.007","article-title":"Fecal strongyle egg counts in horses with suspected pre-clinical pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction before and after treatment with pergolide","volume":"235","author":"Christen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cveq.2021.11.007","article-title":"Polyuria and Polydipsia in Horses","volume":"38","author":"Barrell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hines, M.T. (2018). Clinical approach to commonly encountered problems. Equine Intern. Med., 232\u2013310.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-44329-6.00007-3"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Schott, H. (1998). Polyuria and polydipsia. Equine Internal Medicine, WB Saunders."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2010.0500.x","article-title":"Seasonal variation in serum concentrations of selected metabolic hormones in horses","volume":"24","author":"Place","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Schott, H.C., Ollivett, T.L., and Burton, A.J. (2020). Polyuria and polydipsia. Large Animal Internal Medicine, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2012.00997.x","article-title":"Case series of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in a tropical climate","volume":"90","author":"Spelta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12208","article-title":"Atypical histopathological findings in a 15-year-old W armblood gelding diagnosed with anhidrosis in a temperate climate","volume":"27","author":"Sullivan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2014.12.037","article-title":"Suspensory ligament degeneration associated with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses","volume":"203","author":"Hofberger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.2.199","article-title":"Assessment of tissue-specific cortisol activity with regard to degeneration of the suspensory ligaments in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"79","author":"Hofberger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2011.00784.x","article-title":"Computed tomographic findings in the pituitary gland and brain of horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"25","author":"Pease","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"261","article-title":"Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: An international survey of veterinarians\u2019 approach to diagnosis, management, and estimated prevalence","volume":"81","author":"Carmalt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Can. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2012.00932.x","article-title":"Diagnostic frequency, response to therapy, and long-term prognosis among horses and ponies with pituitary par intermedia dysfunction, 1993\u20132004","volume":"26","author":"Rohrbach","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2005.tb02674.x","article-title":"Diagnosing equine pars intermedia dysfunction: Are we there yet?","volume":"19","author":"Toribio","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"987","article-title":"Evaluation of the combined dexamethasone suppression\/ thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test for detection of pars intermedia pituitary adenomas in horses","volume":"20","author":"Frank","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/0739-7240(94)00006-M","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of equine pituitary pars intermedia adenoma","volume":"12","author":"Wensing","year":"1995","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirkwood, N.C., Hughes, K.J., and Stewart, A.J. (2022). Prospective assessment of clinical signs and adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) concentrations in horses transitioning to pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9100572"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.45-1-26","article-title":"Correlation of pituitary histomorphometry with adrenocorticotrophic hormone response to domperidone administration in the diagnosis of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"45","author":"Miller","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2011.01.003","article-title":"The Effect of Season on the Histologic and Histomorphometric Appearance of the Equine Pituitary Gland","volume":"32","author":"Cordero","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2005.66.2055","article-title":"Agreement in histologic assessments of the pituitary pars intermedia in aged horses","volume":"66","author":"McFarlane","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.1701","article-title":"Evaluation of pituitary gland anatomy and histopathologic findings in clinically normal horses and horses and ponies with pituitary pars intermedia adenoma","volume":"65","author":"Heinrichs","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2020.105562","article-title":"Efficacy of pergolide for the management of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: A systematic review","volume":"266","author":"Tatum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2011.0712.x","article-title":"Seasonal changes in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and \u03b1-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in normal, aged horses","volume":"25","author":"Funk","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Frank, N., Bailey, S., Bertin, F.R., de Laat, M., Durham, A., Kritchevsky, J., and Menzies-Gow, N. (2021, November 11). EEG Recommendations on Diagnosis and Management of Equine Metabolic Syndrome (EMS), Including Assessment of Insulin Status. Available online: https:\/\/sites.tufts.edu\/equineendogroup\/files\/2020\/09\/200592_EMS_Recommendations_Bro-FINAL.pdf."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15617","article-title":"Evaluation of combined testing to simultaneously diagnose pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and insulin dysregulation in horses","volume":"33","author":"Horn","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Bamford, N., Bertin, F.-R., El-Haige, C., Stewart, A., and Bailey, S. (2020, January 6\u201310). Comparison of autumnal adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations between apparently healthy horses and ponies. Proceedings of the 4th Global Equine Endocrinology Symposium, Gut Ising, Bavaria, Germany."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2022.105857","article-title":"The Effect of Month and Breed on Plasma Acth Concentrations in Equids","volume":"286","author":"Durham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2014.02.004","article-title":"Influence of feeding status, time of the day, and season on baseline adrenocorticotropic hormone and the response to thyrotropin releasing hormone-stimulation test in healthy horses","volume":"48","author":"Lopez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12114","article-title":"Investigation of rhythms of secretion and repeatability of plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations in healthy horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"46","author":"Rendle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Stewart, A.J., Yuen, K.Y., Hinrichsen, S., Horn, R., Dryburgh, E., and Bertin, F.R. (2020, January 6\u201310). Effect of sample handling on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations following thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulation in horses. Proceedings of the 4th Global Equine Endocrinology Symposium (GEES), Gut Ising, Bavaria, Germany."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hinrichsen, S.L., Yuen, K.Y., Dryburgh, E.L., Bertin, F.-R., and Stewart, A.J. (2022). Short-Term Effects of Temperature and Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Stimulation on Adrenocorticotropin Stability in Horses. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12030324"},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Durham, A.E., and Copas, V.E.N. (2021, November 01). Investigation of the in vitro stability of ACTH in horses. Available online: https:\/\/sites.tufts.edu\/equineendogroup\/files\/2012\/11\/MISC1_Investiageion_of_the_in_vitro_stability.pdf."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15771","article-title":"The effect of freeze-thaw cycles on determination of immunoreactive plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone concentrations in horses","volume":"34","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer, J.C., Hunyadi, L.M., and Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez-Mena, J.M. (2021). The accuracy of ACTH as a biomarker for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Equine Vet. J.","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13500"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.238.10.1305","article-title":"\u03b1-Melanocyte\u2014Stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropin concentrations in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone and comparison with adrenocorticotropin concentration after domperidone administration in healthy horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"238","author":"Beech","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2885","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16281","article-title":"Repeatability of a thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test for diagnosis of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in mature horses","volume":"35","author":"Kam","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.07.008","article-title":"Circannual variability in adrenocorticotropic hormone responses to administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in clinically normal horses in Australia","volume":"238","author":"Byrne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16362","article-title":"Effect of early or late blood sampling on thyrotropin releasing hormone stimulation test results in horses","volume":"36","author":"Thane","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.231.9.1365","article-title":"Effect of dietary fructans and dexamethasone administration on the insulin response of ponies predisposed to laminitis","volume":"231","author":"Bailey","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.105378","article-title":"Prevalence of and risk factors for acute laminitis in horses treated with corticosteroids","volume":"185","author":"Potter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12053","article-title":"Seasonal and annual influence on insulin and cortisol results from overnight dexamethasone suppression tests in normal ponies and ponies predisposed to laminitis","volume":"45","author":"Bailey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Durham, A.E., Fey, K., McGowan, C., Tamzali, Y., and van der Kolk, J. (2022, April 17). Dealing with Equine Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (equine Cushing\u2019s Disease) in Equine Practice. Available online: https:\/\/files8.design-editor.com\/93\/9346614\/UploadedFiles\/F5F638B2-5C19-5586-913D-A8EA67DA722C.pdf."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2011.00444.x","article-title":"Circannual variation in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations in the UK in normal horses and ponies, and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"44","author":"Copas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1111\/vru.13072","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging of the normal equine pituitary gland","volume":"63","author":"Hobbs","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12621","article-title":"Large pituitary adenoma in an 8-year-old Arabian stallion","volume":"30","author":"Madrigal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2019.01.008","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pergolide mesylate after oral administration in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"68","author":"Rendle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/jvp.12339","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of pergolide mesylate following long-term administration to horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"40","author":"McFarlane","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fortin, J.S., Benskey, M.J., Lookingland, K.J., Patterson, J.S., Howey, E.B., Goudreau, J.L., and Schott, H.C. (2020). Restoring pars intermedia dopamine concentrations and tyrosine hydroxylase expression levels with pergolide: Evidence from horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02565-3"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatum, R.C., McGowan, C.M., Dean, R.S., and Ireland, J.L. (2021). Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: Identifying research priorities for diagnosis, treatment and prognosis through a priority setting partnership. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244784"},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"742","article-title":"Treatment with pergolide or cyproheptadine of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (equine Cushing\u2019s disease)","volume":"16","author":"Donaldson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Andrews, F.M., McFarlane, D., Stokes, A., Schott, H.C., Bimes, R., Marteniuk, J., Hunt, J., Toppin, S., Kolb, D., and White, G.D. (, January August). An Evaluation of the Clinical Efficacy of Pergolide Mesylate Tablets for the Control of Clinical Signs Associated with Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (Equine Cushing\u2019s Disease) in Horses. Proceedings of the Corrected Freedom of Information Summary, Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc., Ingelheim, Germany."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"(2011, January 7). Prascend Tablets Pergolide Mesylate. Proceedings of the Corrected Freedom of Information Summary, Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica, Inc., Ingelheim, Germany."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.234.3.385","article-title":"Effects of compounding and storage conditions on stability of pergolide mesylate","volume":"234","author":"Davis","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s007020200052","article-title":"Pergolide protects dopaminergic neurons in primary culture under stress conditions","volume":"109","author":"Gille","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neural. Transm. (Vienna)"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0007-1935(05)80084-3","article-title":"Equine Cushing\u2019s disease","volume":"149","author":"Love","year":"1993","journal-title":"Br. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"Schott, H., Coursen, C.L., Eberhart, S.W., Nachreiner, R.J., Refsal, K.R., Ewart, S.L., and Marteniuk, J.V. (2001, January 24\u201328). The Michigan Cushing\u2019s Project. Proceedings of the 47th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_153","first-page":"2","article-title":"Equine endocrinology","volume":"10","year":"2015","journal-title":"CAB Rev."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.2746\/042516403776014271","article-title":"Efficacy of trilostane for the treatment of equine Cushing\u2019s syndrome","volume":"35","author":"McGowan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_155","unstructured":"Beech, J. (1983). Tumors of the Pituitary Gland, Saunders. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_156","first-page":"384","article-title":"Equine Cushing\u2019s Disease: A Clinical Update","volume":"11","author":"Bliss","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Compd."},{"key":"ref_157","unstructured":"Menzies-Gow, N.J. (2021, November 01). Managing Equine Cushing\u2019s. Available online: https:\/\/www.vettimes.co.uk\/app\/uploads\/wp-post-to-pdf-enhanced-cache\/1\/managing-equine-cushings.pdf."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2011.05.004","article-title":"The prevalence of endocrinopathic laminitis among horses presented for laminitis at a first-opinion\/referral equine hospital","volume":"41","author":"Karikoski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2017.10.008","article-title":"The oral glucose test predicts laminitis risk in ponies fed a diet high in nonstructural carbohydrates","volume":"63","author":"Meier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Domest Anim Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2020.110013","article-title":"Relationships of inflamm-aging with circulating nutrient levels, body composition, age, and pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in a senior horse population","volume":"221","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orozco-Barrios, C.E., Battaglia-Hsu, S.-F., Arango-Rodriguez, M.L., Ayala-Davila, J., Chery, C., Alberto, J.-M., Schroeder, H., Daval, J.-L., Martinez-Fong, D., and Gueant, J.-L. (2009). Vitamin B12-impaired metabolism produces apoptosis and Parkinson phenotype in rats expressing the transcobalamin-oleosin chimera in substantia nigra. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008268"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.1321","article-title":"White matter hyperintensities and cerebral amyloidosis: Necessary and sufficient for clinical expression of Alzheimer disease?","volume":"70","author":"Provenzano","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6616","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-0656","article-title":"Sulfur amino acids in Cushing\u2019s disease: Insight in homocysteine and taurine levels in patients with active and cured disease","volume":"90","author":"Faggiano","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy, D.O. (2016). B vitamins and the brain: Mechanisms, dose and efficacy\u2014A review. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8020068"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4172\/2376-1318.1000161","article-title":"B Vitamins for Neuropathy and Neuropathic Pain","volume":"6","author":"Geller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vitam. Miner."},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"Geor, R.J., Coenen, M., and Harris, P. (2013). Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition: Health, Welfare and Performance, Elsevier Health Sciences."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Brien, C., Darcy-Dunne, M.R., and Murphy, B.A. (2020). The effects of extended photoperiod and warmth on hair growth in ponies and horses at different times of year. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227115"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2021.106651","article-title":"Impact of blue light therapy on plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and hypertrichosis in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction","volume":"78","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."}],"container-title":["Veterinary Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/9\/10\/556\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:49:27Z","timestamp":1760143767000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-7381\/9\/10\/556"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,10]]},"references-count":168,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["vetsci9100556"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vetsci9100556","relation":{},"ISSN":["2306-7381"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2306-7381","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,10]]}}}