{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T06:45:11Z","timestamp":1789022711177,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":183,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vision"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visual discomfort or visual stress is an uncomfortable subjective experience that occurs in response to specific visual stimuli. It affects a large proportion of the population to various degrees, disproportionately impacting those with heightened sensory sensitivities, particularly neurodivergent individuals. We argue that this might stem from a mismatch between the statistical properties of visual stimuli in human-made environments and those in natural environments that the visual system can process efficiently. We discuss the inefficiency with which images with certain spatial, chromatic and temporal characteristics are processed by the visual system and propose a cerebral mechanism to account for the discomfort they induce. The mechanism offers a potential explanation for the large individual differences in susceptibility to discomfort. We highlight two avenues for intervention: (1) environmental modifications aimed at reducing the prevalence of visually stressing stimuli in urban settings, and (2) individual-level strategies, such as personalised optical treatments. Addressing these challenges requires an interdisciplinary effort bridging neuroscience, vision science, interior and urban design and typography to create visually accessible and inclusive environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vision10020034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T12:14:58Z","timestamp":1781180098000},"page":"34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Cerebral Basis for Visual Discomfort and Visual Stress"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6133-6729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul B.","family":"Hibbard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4536-7215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Allen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vision and Hearing Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4115-9715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi M.","family":"Asher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine","family":"Batey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vision Though Colour, Newcastle upon Tyne NE3 3PF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4164-297X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beverley","family":"Burke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason J.","family":"Braithwaite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9745-3916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geoff G.","family":"Cole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3061-1584","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caelan","family":"Dow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce J. W.","family":"Evans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry and Visual Science, City St George\u2019s, University of London, London EC1V 0HB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Franklin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sussex Colour Group & Baby Lab, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2400-4412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah M.","family":"Haigh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1206-2172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hillevi","family":"Hemph\u00e4l\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Institution of Design Sciences, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9342-4045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ian","family":"Hosking","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Keyes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vision Though Colour, Newcastle upon Tyne NE3 3PF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9606-0646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chan-su","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Communication Engineering & Computer Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6143-7466","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ute","family":"Leonards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cathy","family":"Manning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0627-4139","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Maule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5652-0174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naomi","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Portland, OR 97204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karen","family":"Monet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Opticalm Visual Stress Clinic, Kanata South Business Park, 150 Terence Matthews Crescent, Suite A2 2nd Floor, Ottawa, ON K2M 1X4, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Louise","family":"O\u2019Hare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 5LT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1544-2405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivier","family":"Penacchio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bridging Research in AI and Neuroscience, Computer Vision Center, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain"},{"name":"Computer Science Department, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gordon T.","family":"Plant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Neuroscience and Stroke, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6793-0446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgie","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8577-7294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0589-4678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew J.","family":"Schofield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6938-2877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miroslav","family":"Slouka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telecommunications, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, VSB\u2014Technical University of Ostrava, 17. Listopadu 15\/2172, 708 33 Ostrava, Czech Republic"},{"name":"indie Technologies Switzerland AG (EXALOS), Wagistrasse 24, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0536-0510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petroc","family":"Sumner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC), School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7814-1511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cleo","family":"Valentine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7944-2674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Wilcockson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4936-1563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanae","family":"Yoshimoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima 739-8521, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9322-0461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arnold J.","family":"Wilkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK"},{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Black, N.L., Neumann, W.P., and Noy, I. (2021). Visual Symptoms and Risk Assessment Using Visual Ergonomics Risk Assessment Method (VERAM), Proceedings of the 21st Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2021)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilkins, A.J. (1995). Visual Stress, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198521747.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/13546805.2024.2335103","article-title":"Pattern glare sensitivity distinguishes subclinical autism and schizotypy","volume":"29","author":"Torrens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2025.108640","article-title":"The subtypes of visual hypersensitivity are transdiagnostic across neurodivergence, neurology and mental health","volume":"234","author":"Price","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/107.4.989","article-title":"A neurological basis for visual discomfort","volume":"107","author":"Wilkins","year":"1984","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1177\/1477153519852391","article-title":"Research Note: Visibility of temporal light artefact from flicker at 11 kHz","volume":"52","author":"Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"Light. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2024.102737","article-title":"A visual discomfort questionnaire for use in research and applied settings","volume":"83","author":"Vinkers","year":"2024","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2008.00578.x","article-title":"The Pattern Glare Test: A review and determination of normative values","volume":"28","author":"Evans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"481","article-title":"Optometric correlates of Meares\u2013Irlen syndrome: A matched group study","volume":"15","author":"Evans","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"13","article-title":"Figure\/ground, brightness contrast, and reading disabilities","volume":"14","author":"Meares","year":"1980","journal-title":"Visible Lang."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Irlen, H. (1983). Successful treatment of learning difficulties. Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim, California, Science and Education Publishing."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parmar, K.R., Porter, C.S., Dickinson, C.M., Pelham, J., Baimbridge, P., and Gowen, E. (2021). Visual sensory experiences from the viewpoint of autistic adults. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.633037"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27546330251383024","DOI":"10.1177\/27546330251383024","article-title":"They impact my life daily and greatly: A qualitative exploration of how subjective sensory sensitivities are experienced, exacerbated, and coped with","volume":"3","author":"Price","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurodiversity"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.50.11.1546","article-title":"Photosensitive patients: Symptoms and signs during intermittent photic stimulation and their relation to seizures in daily life","volume":"50","author":"Binnie","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"313","article-title":"Pattern sensitivity: A missed part of the diagnosis","volume":"8","author":"Kader","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.58.110405.085632","article-title":"Visual perception and the statistical properties of natural scenes","volume":"59","author":"Geisler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"41","article-title":"The built environment and its patterns: A view from the vision sciences","volume":"6","author":"Wilkins","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Des. Appl. Res. Innov. Eng. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/102.1.1","article-title":"Neurophysiological aspects of pattern-sensitive epilepsy","volume":"102","author":"Wilkins","year":"1979","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1989.00520460125024","article-title":"Migraine and stripe-induced visual discomfort","volume":"46","author":"Marcus","year":"1989","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1968.sp008574","article-title":"Application of Fourier analysis to the visibility of gratings","volume":"197","author":"Campbell","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"54P","article-title":"An electrophysiological measure of the psychophysical contrast threshold","volume":"217","author":"Campbell","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(82)90229-2","article-title":"The effects of contrast and length of gratings on the visual evoked potential","volume":"22","author":"Wright","year":"1982","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2008.12.014","article-title":"Orientation-specific contextual modulation of the fMRI BOLD response to luminance and chromatic gratings in human visual cortex","volume":"49","author":"McDonald","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2013.07.003","article-title":"Discomfort and the cortical haemodynamic response to coloured gratings","volume":"89","author":"Haigh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2025.108720","article-title":"Visual discomfort for flickering sinusoids is not predicted by the spatio-temporal contrast sensitivity function","volume":"238","author":"Hibbard","year":"2026","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.20.7.11","article-title":"A neural correlate of visual discomfort from flicker","volume":"20","author":"Gentile","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140535","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.140535","article-title":"Uncomfortable images produce non-sparse responses in a model of primary visual cortex","volume":"2","author":"Hibbard","year":"2015","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Penacchio, O., Otazu, X., Wilkins, A.J., and Haigh, S.M. (2023). A mechanistic account of visual discomfort. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1200661"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"217","article-title":"Possible principles underlying the transformation of sensory messages","volume":"1","author":"Barlow","year":"1961","journal-title":"Sens. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laughlin, S.B. (1990). Coding efficiency and visual processing. Vision: Coding and Efficiency, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511626197.004"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.1193","article-title":"Natural image statistics and neural representation","volume":"24","author":"Simoncelli","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1038\/381607a0","article-title":"Emergence of simple-cell receptive field properties by learning a sparse code for natural images","volume":"381","author":"Olshausen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.26.000157","article-title":"Color and spatial structure in natural scenes","volume":"26","author":"Burton","year":"1987","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3367","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(97)00181-8","article-title":"Visual sensitivity, blur and the sources of variability in the amplitude spectra of natural scenes","volume":"37","author":"Field","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220567","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.220567","article-title":"Luminance contrast provides metric depth information","volume":"10","author":"Hibbard","year":"2023","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1990.2.3.308","article-title":"Towards a theory of early visual processing","volume":"2","author":"Atick","year":"1990","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.7.001113","article-title":"Human discrimination of fractal images","volume":"7","author":"Knill","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(99)00262-6","article-title":"The human visual system is optimised for processing the spatial information in natural visual images","volume":"10","author":"Parraga","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(00)00277-7","article-title":"Edge co-occurrence in natural images predicts contour grouping performance","volume":"41","author":"Geisler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5436","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812860106","article-title":"Natural images dominate in binocular rivalry","volume":"106","author":"Baker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2004.07.007","article-title":"Sparse coding of sensory inputs","volume":"14","author":"Olshausen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyv\u00e4rinen, A., Hurri, J., and Hoyer, P.O. (2009). Natural Image Statistics: A Probabilistic Approach to Early Computational Vision, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-491-1"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(97)00121-1","article-title":"The \u201cindependent components\u201d of natural scenes are edge filters","volume":"37","author":"Bell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1126\/science.287.5456.1273","article-title":"Sparse coding and decorrelation in primary visual cortex during natural vision","volume":"287","author":"Vinje","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02331346","article-title":"Forming sparse representations by local anti-Hebbian learning","volume":"64","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1068\/p6656","article-title":"Visual discomfort and natural image statistics","volume":"39","author":"Juricevic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2014.12.013","article-title":"Visual discomfort and the spatial distribution of Fourier energy","volume":"108","author":"Penacchio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1068\/p2954","article-title":"Visual discomfort: The influence of spatial frequency","volume":"30","author":"Conlon","year":"2001","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12364","article-title":"The effect of viewing distance on responses to the pattern glare test","volume":"99","author":"Monger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Burke, B., and Longo, M. (Vis. Res., 2025). An oblique Effect for Visual Discomfort, Vis. Res., submitted."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1068\/p5814","article-title":"Uncomfortable images in art and nature","volume":"37","author":"Fernandez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1163\/22134913-20181092","article-title":"Visual image statistics in the history of western art","volume":"6","author":"Mather","year":"2018","journal-title":"Art Percept."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1167\/4.12.5","article-title":"A horizontal bias in human visual processing of orientation and its correspondence to the structural components of natural scenes","volume":"4","author":"Hansen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1167\/9.1.35","article-title":"An anisotropy of orientation-tuned suppression that matches the anisotropy of typical natural scenes","volume":"9","author":"Essock","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2010.01.020","article-title":"The horizontal effect in suppression: Anisotropic overlay and surround suppression at high and low speeds","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogawa, N., and Motoyoshi, I. (2020). Differential effects of orientation and spatial-frequency spectra on visual unpleasantness. Front. Psychol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01342"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McAdams, P., Svobodova, S., Newman, T.J., Terry, K., Mather, G., Skelton, A.E., and Franklin, A. (2025). The edge orientation entropy of natural scenes is associated with infant visual preferences and adult aesthetic judgements. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0316555"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5050","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-55149-8","article-title":"Trypophobia, skin disease, and the visual discomfort of natural textures","volume":"14","author":"DiMattina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pipitone, R.N., and DiMattina, C. (2020). Object clusters or spectral energy? Assessing the relative contributions of image phase and amplitude spectra to trypophobia. Front. Psychol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01847"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613484937","article-title":"Fear of holes","volume":"24","author":"Cole","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2304","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2015.1013970","article-title":"Assessment of trypophobia and an analysis of its visual precipitation","volume":"68","author":"Le","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.5709\/acp-0222-2","article-title":"Trypophobic discomfort is spatial-frequency dependent","volume":"13","author":"Sasaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1111\/head.13620","article-title":"Cortical hyper-excitability in migraine in response to chromatic patterns","volume":"59","author":"Haigh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Headache J. Head Face Pain"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2021.01.007","article-title":"The effects of visual discomfort and chromaticity separation on neural processing during a visual task","volume":"182","author":"Lindquist","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108520","article-title":"Visual discomfort and chromatic flickers","volume":"226","author":"Yoshimoto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(76)90040-7","article-title":"Influence of color on the photoconvulsive response","volume":"41","author":"Takahashi","year":"1976","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6013","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0600890103","article-title":"Spectral statistics in natural scenes predict hue, saturation, and brightness","volume":"103","author":"Long","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(97)00125-9","article-title":"Adaptation and the color statistics of natural images","volume":"37","author":"Webster","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1080\/09548980701654405","article-title":"Seasonal variations in the color statistics of natural images","volume":"18","author":"Webster","year":"2007","journal-title":"Netw. Comput. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perry, G., Taylor, N.W., Bothwell, P.C., Milbourn, C.C., Powell, G., and Singh, K.D. (2020). The gamma response to colour hue in humans: Evidence from MEG. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243237"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.53.5.926","article-title":"Photosensitive epilepsies and pathophysiologic mechanisms of the photoparoxysmal response","volume":"53","author":"Takahashi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2022.148142","article-title":"The relationship between visual discomfort and cortical excitability in cone-opponent stimuli","volume":"1798","author":"Goodwin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Penacchio, O., Haigh, S.M., Ross, X., Ferguson, R., and Wilkins, A.J. (2021). Visual discomfort and variations in chromaticity in art and nature. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.711064"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7057307","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2022.3213336","article-title":"How Visual Discomfort Is Affected by Colour Saturation: A fNIRS Study","volume":"14","author":"Shi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1068\/i0564","article-title":"Spotting fruit versus picking fruit as the selective advantage of human colour vision","volume":"4","author":"Bompas","year":"2013","journal-title":"i-Perception"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9246","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65754-y","article-title":"Pattern contrast influences wariness in na\u00efve predators towards aposematic patterns","volume":"10","author":"Halpin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2017.05.015","article-title":"Visual discomfort and flicker","volume":"138","author":"Yoshimoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2019.04.010","article-title":"Adaptation and visual discomfort from flicker","volume":"160","author":"Yoshimoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1177\/14771535241288783","article-title":"Visibility and annoyance of the phantom array effect varies with age and history of migraine","volume":"56","author":"Miller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Light. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1177\/1477153519871688","article-title":"The effect of stroboscopic effect on human health indicators","volume":"52","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Light. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(00)01685-4","article-title":"Changes in visual perception at the time of saccades","volume":"24","author":"Ross","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"15","article-title":"Perception of Ghosting in LED Lighting: Modeling the visibility of Ghosting (or Phantom Array Effect)","volume":"20","author":"Kong","year":"2024","journal-title":"ILI Mag."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1177\/03010066241252066","article-title":"Flicker and reading speed: Effects on individuals with visual sensitivity","volume":"53","author":"Laycox","year":"2024","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Wilkins, A.J., and Craven, B. (1987). Visual display units and fluorescent lighting enlarge movements of the eyes across text. Hazards of Light (Eye and Skin): Myths and Realities, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.14253\/acn.2023.25.2.55","article-title":"Recording and interpretation of ocular movements: Saccades, smooth pursuit, and optokinetic nystagmus","volume":"25","author":"Kang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, D.H. (2013). What is the primary cause of individual differences in contrast sensitivity?. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069536"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012002","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/3128\/1\/012002","article-title":"Modelling the phantom array from the spatial waveform on the retina","volume":"3128","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lind\u00e9n, J., Hemph\u00e4l\u00e4, H., Bloch, K.M., Edvinsson, L., Surova, Y., Mauritsson, J., P\u00e5lsson, E., Magnusson, V., van Westen, D., and Bj\u00f6rkstrand, J. (Leukos, 2025). Temporal light modulation activation in visual cortex\u2014A 7T fMRI study on healthy subjects, Leukos, in press.","DOI":"10.1080\/15502724.2025.2583961"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.3921\/joptom.2009.112","article-title":"Disability glare in the aging eye. Assessment and impact on driving","volume":"2","author":"Vonhoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.006","article-title":"Cortical hyperexcitability and sensitivity to discomfort glare","volume":"69","author":"Bargary","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1518\/0018720024494775","article-title":"Relation between glare and driving performance","volume":"44","author":"Theeuwes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18056","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.018056","article-title":"Model predicting discomfort glare caused by LED road lights","volume":"22","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1582\/LEUKOS.2005.02.02.006","article-title":"Short-wavelength content of LED headlamps and discomfort glare","volume":"2","author":"Sivak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Leukos"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, N., and Irvin, L. (2024). What the Flicker Is Going on Here? Temporal Light Modulation in Automotive Lighting. WCX SAE World Congress Experience, SAE. SAE Technical Paper.","DOI":"10.4271\/2024-01-2462"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, B.J.W. (2022). Pickwell\u2019s Binocular Vision Anomalies, Elsevier. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-73317-5.00001-4"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilkins, A.J., and Evans, B.J. (2024). Coloured Filters for Visual Stress\u2014Early Studies. Vision, Reading Difficulties and Visual Stress, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-65568-5"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Wurtz, R.H., and Goldberg, M.E. (1989). The Neurobiology of Saccadic Eye Movements, Reviews of Oculomotor Research, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1889\/JSID18.11.931","article-title":"Measuring visual fatigue and visual discomfort associated with 3-D displays","volume":"18","author":"Lambooij","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Soc. Inf. Disp."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2010.00804.x","article-title":"An exploration of the initial effects of stereoscopic displays on optometric parameters","volume":"31","author":"Fortuin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2004.07.004","article-title":"Visual comfort of binocular and 3D displays","volume":"25","author":"Kooi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1247","article-title":"Children with autism show reduced somatosensory response: An MEG study","volume":"5","author":"Marco","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2016.12.003","article-title":"Discomfort from urban scenes: Metabolic consequences","volume":"160","author":"Le","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"71","article-title":"Headache-specific hyperexcitation sensitises and habituates on different time scales: An event related potential study of pattern-glare","volume":"5","author":"Dogan","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroImage Rep."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint16060116","article-title":"Sensitization and Habituation of Hyper-Excitation to Constant Presentation of Pattern-Glare Stimuli","volume":"16","author":"Jefferis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Int."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hare, L., Clarke, A.D., and Pollux, P.M. (2015). VEP responses to op-art stimuli. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0139400"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13479","article-title":"Steady-state VEP responses to uncomfortable stimuli","volume":"45","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E008","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952523824000051","article-title":"Support for the efficient coding account of visual discomfort","volume":"41","author":"Hibbard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vis. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6168","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15419","article-title":"The missing N1 or jittered P2: Electrophysiological correlates of pattern glare in the time and frequency domain","volume":"54","author":"Tempesta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1","article-title":"Visual discomfort, neural inefficiency and the cortical haemodynamic response","volume":"3","author":"Wilkins","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acad. Biol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurkovi\u010dov\u00e1, L., P\u00e1len\u00edk, J., Kudli\u010dka, P., Pezlar, L., Ru\u017ei\u010dkov\u00e1, A., Ju\u0159\u00edk, V., Mare\u010dek, R., Roman, R., Braithwaite, J.J., and Sandberg, K. (2024). Subjective visual sensitivity in neurotypical adults: Insights from a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1417996"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-4610.2011.02010.x","article-title":"Interictal pattern-induced visual discomfort and ictal photophobia in episodic migraineurs: An association of interictal and ictal photophobia","volume":"51","author":"Chu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Headache"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1080\/135062899394885","article-title":"Measuring visual discomfort","volume":"6","author":"Conlon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vis. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2015.03.023","article-title":"Stimulating the aberrant brain: Evidence for increased cortical hyperexcitability from a transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) study of individuals predisposed to anomalous perceptions","volume":"69","author":"Braithwaite","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000001343","article-title":"Quantifying visual allodynia across migraine subtypes: The Leiden Visual Sensitivity Scale","volume":"159","author":"Perenboom","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102419845641","article-title":"Validation of a photophobia symptom impact scale","volume":"39","author":"Cortez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2019.04.002","article-title":"Reliability of a new risk assessment method for visual ergonomics","volume":"72","author":"Zetterberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2025.108668","article-title":"What are the most salient visuoperceptual reading symptoms to identify visual stress in adults? Using exploratory factor analysis to develop the Ulster visual stress questionnaire","volume":"235","author":"Harkin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2025.108610","article-title":"Understanding the subtypes of visual hypersensitivity: Four coherent factors and their measurement with the Cardiff Hypersensitivity Scale (CHYPS)","volume":"233","author":"Price","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.55.1.75","article-title":"The Adult Sensory Profile: Measuring patterns of sensory processing","volume":"55","author":"Brown","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-012-1608-7","article-title":"The relationship between sensory sensitivity and autistic traits in the general population","volume":"43","author":"Robertson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2023.2219024","article-title":"The Multi-Modal Evaluation of Sensory Sensitivity (MESSY): Assessing a commonly missed symptom of acquired brain injury","volume":"38","author":"Thielen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1080\/08164622.2024.2413701","article-title":"Refractive and ocular motor status in autistic adults without learning disabilities: An exploratory study","volume":"108","author":"Parmar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, X., Fan, H., Yang, X., Chen, Y., Deng, W., Guo, W., Wang, Q., Chen, E., Li, T., and Ma, X. (2019). High level of pattern glare in major depressive disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-019-2399-6"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-022-01469-7","article-title":"Visual-stress-related cortical excitability as a prospective marker for symptoms of depression and anxiety in young people","volume":"273","author":"Hui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2013.08.004","article-title":"Overreactive brain responses to sensory stimuli in youth with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"52","author":"Green","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1726","article-title":"Reduced modulation of thalamocortical connectivity during exposure to sensory stimuli in ASD","volume":"10","author":"Green","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5474","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23740","article-title":"Visually stressful striped patterns alter human visual cortical functional connectivity","volume":"38","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., and Wilkins, A. (2021). The Functional Network of the visual cortex is altered in Migraine. Vision, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/vision5040057"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-015-0577-6","article-title":"Visual evoked potentials in subgroups of migraine with aura patients","volume":"16","author":"Coppola","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2019.102122","article-title":"Differences in early and late pattern-onset visual-evoked potentials between self-reported migraineurs and controls","volume":"25","author":"Fong","year":"2020","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-022-01410-2","article-title":"Attenuated alpha oscillation and hyperresponsiveness reveals impaired perceptual learning in migraineurs","volume":"23","author":"Fong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"615","article-title":"Evidence for increased background neural noise in migraine with aura: Hyperactive but not hyperresponsive","volume":"66","author":"Hibbard","year":"2025","journal-title":"Headache J. Head Face Pain"},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"Morgan, M.H., and Warren, H.L. (1914). Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01146","article-title":"Buildings, beauty, and the brain: A neuroscience of architectural experience","volume":"29","author":"Coburn","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaughan, L. (2017). Practice-Based Design Research, Bloomsbury Publishing.","DOI":"10.5040\/9781474267830"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.1080\/13467581.2021.1971676","article-title":"Rethinking the conflicts and continuities between tradition and modernity in early Korean modern architecture focused on two architects: Gilryong Park and Dongjin Park","volume":"21","author":"Seo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.70094","article-title":"Homo sapiens, industrialisation and the environmental mismatch hypothesis","volume":"101","author":"Longman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39642","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23224-3","article-title":"Biophilic interventions in real and virtual environments reduce stress during cognitively demanding tasks","volume":"15","author":"Serra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valentine, C., Wilkins, A.J., Mitcheltree, H., Penacchio, O., Beckles, B., and Hosking, I. (2025). Visual Discomfort in the Built Environment: Leveraging Generative AI and Computational Analysis to Evaluate Predicted Visual Stress in Architectural Fa\u00e7ades. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15132208"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3109\/00016489509125186","article-title":"The visual vertigo syndrome","volume":"115","author":"Bronstein","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acta Oto-Laryngol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1080\/00140138708966059","article-title":"The clarity and comfort of printed text","volume":"30","author":"Wilkins","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilkins, A., Smith, K., and Penacchio, O. (2020). The influence of typography on algorithms that predict the speed and comfort of reading. Vision, 4.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202002.0212.v1"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1167\/10.13.2","article-title":"Periodic letter strokes within a word affect fixation disparity during reading","volume":"10","author":"Jainta","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1068\/p5651","article-title":"Stripes within words affect reading","volume":"36","author":"Wilkins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.2009.01402.x","article-title":"Typography for children may be inappropriately designed","volume":"32","author":"Wilkins","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Res. Read."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9817.00126","article-title":"Typography in children\u2019s reading schemes may be suboptimal: Evidence from measures of reading rate","volume":"23","author":"Hughes","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Res. Read."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.1992.tb00302.x","article-title":"Preliminary observations concerning treatment of visual discomfort and associated perceptual distortion","volume":"12","author":"Wilkins","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1177\/0305735614546124","article-title":"On the clarity of the musical stave","volume":"43","author":"Wilkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Music"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.47.000101","article-title":"Modulation of Radiant Energy from Incandescent Filaments","volume":"47","author":"Tolles","year":"1957","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1177\/096032718902100102","article-title":"Fluorescent lighting, headaches and eyestrain","volume":"21","author":"Wilkins","year":"1989","journal-title":"Light. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-026-02327-w","article-title":"BOLD repetition enhancement in the orbitofrontal cortex during complex visuospatial processing in migraine without aura: A shift in periaqueductal gray-cortical coupling?","volume":"27","author":"Onlat","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2021.168029","article-title":"A flicker-free decoupled ripple cancellation technique for LED driver circuits","volume":"247","author":"Barwar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/14771535211069482","article-title":"Flicker: A review of temporal light modulation stimulus, responses, and measures","volume":"55","author":"Miller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Light. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501806","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2025.3571423","article-title":"Experimental Study of PWM-Controlled Emission From a Large-Aperture VCSEL","volume":"17","author":"Slouka","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-025-08472-x","article-title":"PWM-based Far-Field Blooming Mitigation in Edge-Emitting Lasers","volume":"57","author":"Slouka","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Wang, T., Yang, H.-Y., and Li, K. (2016). PWM Dimming with Minimum Switching Cycle. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Electronics, Network and Computer Engineering (ICENCE 2016), Atlantis Press.","DOI":"10.2991\/icence-16.2016.84"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2011.2130503","article-title":"PWM Series Dimming for Slow-Dynamics HPF LED Drivers: The High-Frequency Approach","volume":"59","author":"Gacio","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7604","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2021.3130831","article-title":"Hard-Switching Losses in Power FETs: The Role of Output Capacitance","volume":"37","author":"Perera","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1109\/JDT.2011.2175362","article-title":"Comparison of the EMI Performance of LED PWM Dimming Techniques for LED Video Display Application","volume":"8","author":"Svilainis","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Disp. Technol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8200608","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2024.3489725","article-title":"Optical and Visual Performance of PWM Controlled InGaN and InGaAlP LEDs for Automotive Lighting Applications","volume":"16","author":"Slouka","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_161","unstructured":"Lv, R.Y., and Jian, J. (2014). The PWM and Analog Dimming Solution to Implement 0.05% to 100% Dimming Range Based on UCC28810\/11 Constant Current Buck, Texas Instruments. Application Report SLUA701."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130579","DOI":"10.1587\/elex.10.20130579","article-title":"A Novel DC and PWM Dual-Mode Dimming Circuit for the WLED Driver","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEICE Electron. Express"},{"key":"ref_163","unstructured":"Analogue Devices (2026, February 16). LED-Driver Design for Automotive Rear Lighting. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/en\/resources\/technical-articles\/leddriver-design-for-automotive-rear-lighting.html."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1002\/col.22210","article-title":"Observer preference for perceived illumination chromaticity","volume":"43","author":"Bodrogi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Color Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102411409076","article-title":"fMRI evidence that precision ophthalmic tints reduce cortical hyperactivation in migraine","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1002\/col.1022","article-title":"A colorizer for use in determining an optimal ophthalmic tint","volume":"26","author":"Wilkins","year":"2001","journal-title":"Color Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2005.00279.x","article-title":"How precise do precision tints have to be and how many are necessary?","volume":"25","author":"Wilkins","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_168","first-page":"1","article-title":"The repeatability of colorimetry is precise(ly) as expected","volume":"3","author":"Aldrich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuro Ophthalmol. Vis. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1177\/03331024211014633","article-title":"Photophobia in migraine: A symptom cluster?","volume":"41","author":"Wilkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1111\/head.13801","article-title":"Preference for lighting chromaticity in migraine with aura","volume":"60","author":"Vieira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Headache J. Head Face Pain"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2016.04.002","article-title":"A systematic review of controlled trials on visual stress using Intuitive Overlays or the Intuitive Colorimeter","volume":"9","author":"Evans","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12316","article-title":"The effect of coloured overlays and lenses on reading: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"36","author":"Griffith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1743","article-title":"A Delphi study exploring the barriers to dyslexia diagnosis and support: A parent\u2019s perspective","volume":"29","author":"Harding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.2007.00343.x","article-title":"How many overlay colours are necessary to increase reading speed? A comparison of two systems","volume":"30","author":"Smith","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Res. Read."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1475-1313.1996.96000282.x","article-title":"Rate of Reading Test\u00ae: Its reliability, and its validity in the assessment of the effects of coloured overlays","volume":"16","author":"Wilkins","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02656.x","article-title":"Prolonged use of coloured overlays for classroom reading","volume":"88","author":"Jeanes","year":"1997","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.1995.tb00064.x","article-title":"Coloured overlays, visual discomfort, visual search and classroom reading","volume":"18","author":"Tyrrell","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Res. Read."},{"key":"ref_178","first-page":"298098","article-title":"Coloured filters enhance the visual perception of social cues in children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"2012","author":"Ludlow","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISRN Neurol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2020.03.007","article-title":"The possible use of precision tinted lenses to improve social cognition in children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"170","author":"Ludlow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2025.108615","article-title":"A neurological basis for visual stress and its treatment with coloured filters","volume":"231","author":"Wilkins","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"Wilkins, A.J., and Hibbard, P.B. (2014, January 1\u20134). Discomfort and hypermetabolism. Proceedings of the AISB 2014-50th Annual Convention of the AISB, London, UK."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.66.14.49","article-title":"The pattern glare test: Further exploration of methodological and demographic factors","volume":"66","author":"Roman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haigh, S.M., and Durda, I.M. (2026). Discomfort and reading speed: Effects of migraine. Perception, 03010066261442090.","DOI":"10.1177\/03010066261442090"}],"container-title":["Vision"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5150\/10\/2\/34\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T06:37:46Z","timestamp":1781505466000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5150\/10\/2\/34"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"references-count":183,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["vision10020034"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vision10020034","relation":{},"ISSN":["2411-5150"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2411-5150","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]}}}