{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T02:44:56Z","timestamp":1782873896365,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vision"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Visio-spatial skills (VSS) are fundamental perceptual\u2013cognitive capacities that enable athletes to process dynamic visual information, interpret spatial relationships, and execute precise motor responses under competitive conditions. In taekwondo, where scoring actions are executed within milliseconds and success depends on the rapid detection and anticipation of an opponent\u2019s movements, well-developed VSS are considered a functional prerequisite for performance. Method: This cross-sectional observational study examined differences in VSS between amateur taekwondo athletes (n = 50) and non-athletes (n = 50) recruited from the King Cetshwayo Municipality District, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Six VSS were assessed using standardized, validated instruments: accommodation facility (AF), saccadic eye movement (SEM), speed of recognition (SR), hand\u2013eye coordination (HEC), peripheral awareness (PA), and visual memory (VM). Between-group comparisons were performed using the Mann\u2013Whitney U test, with effect sizes reported as rank-biserial correlations (r). Results: Taekwondo athletes demonstrated significantly superior performance across all VSS domains (all p \u2264 0.05), with a large effect observed for SR (r = 0.91), HEC (r = 0,87), SEM (r = 0.78), and AF (r = 0.74), and moderate effect for VM (r = 0.58) and PA (r = 031). The largest between-group percentage differences were observed for SR (79.43%), HEC (48.13%), and SEM (33.33%), with smaller but significant differences in AF (31.05%), VM (14.92%), and PA (4.23%). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a dense, globally integrated VSS network in non-athletes anchored by AF, contrasting with a sparse pattern in taekwondo athletes, in which SEM showed the greatest number of moderate or stronger associations with other variables. These within-group correlation structures are presented as preliminary and descriptive observations only. Intraclass correlation coefficients were excellent for five of the six VSS (ICC \u2265 0.963), with PA yielding a point estimate of ICC = 0.853, characterized by a wide confidence interval. Conclusions: These findings indicate that amateur taekwondo athletes show superior perceptual, oculomotor, and visuo-motor performance compared to non-athletes. Within-group VSS correlation pattern differs descriptively between the groups. The cross-sectional design cannot determine whether these differences reflect training-associated perceptual adaptation, pre-existing trait-based self-selection into taekwondo, or a combination of both mechanisms. Both interpretations carry applied implications for talent identification and vision training program design. A longitudinal investigation is required to establish causal directionality. SEM and AF are proposed as the most diagnostically informative VSS markers for taekwondo screening, under either interpretation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vision10030038","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:50:37Z","timestamp":1782867037000},"page":"38","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Visio-Spatial Skills in Amateur Taekwondo Athletes Compared with Non-Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5348-0584","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moeketsi Robert","family":"Mohlakoana","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2586-4668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerrit Jan","family":"Breukelman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5528-8983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lourens","family":"Millard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001729","article-title":"Review: Vision and On-field Performance: A Critical Review of Visual Assessment and Training Studies with Athletes","volume":"98","author":"Laby","year":"2021","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Vickers, J.N. (2007). Perception, Cognition, and Decision Training: The Quiet Eye in Action, Human Kinetics."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.51329\/mehdiophthal1508","article-title":"Visio-spatial intelligence skills in non-athletes versus amateur boxers","volume":"13","author":"Mahlangu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Hypothesis Discov. Innov. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2005.06.002","article-title":"Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: Some considerations when applying the expert performance approach","volume":"24","author":"Williams","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0159-9","article-title":"Physical and physiological profiles of taekwondo athletes","volume":"44","author":"Bridge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1080\/00913847.2025.2449812","article-title":"Doping in combat sports: A systematic review","volume":"53","author":"Damjanovic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Sportsmed."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Perez, C., Nascimento, H., Roque, A., and Sports Vision High-Performance Research Group (2025). Awareness, perceived importance and implementation of sports vision training. Sports, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports13100353"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.05.004","article-title":"The perceptual-cognitive skills of combat sports athletes: A systematic review","volume":"44","author":"Russo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2018-0091","article-title":"Peripheral vision in martial arts experts: The cost-dependent anchoring of gaze","volume":"41","author":"Hausegger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"218","article-title":"Taekwondo: Anthropometric characteristics and biomechanical advantage","volume":"25","author":"Scamardella","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Phys. Educ. Sport"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathe, N., Millard, L., Breukelman, G.J., and Mathunjwa, M. (2023). Differences in visio-spatial intelligence between non-athletes and netball players. Front. Sports Act. Living, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2023.1109967"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e06290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e06290","article-title":"Differences in visio-spatial expertise between 1st division rugby players and non-athletes","volume":"7","author":"Millard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"King Cetshwayo District Municipality (2026, May 24). Municipal Overview. Available online: https:\/\/municipalities.co.za\/overview\/124\/king-cetshwayo-district-municipality."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"EMW Global (2026, May 24). The Sports Market in South Africa. Available online: https:\/\/emw-global.com\/insight\/around-the-world-the-sports-market-in-south-africa."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Taekwondo (2026, May 24). About World Taekwondo. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldtaekwondo.org."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (2026, May 24). Team South Africa. Available online: https:\/\/www.teamsa.co.za."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11332-020-00663-1","article-title":"Visio-spatial skills in athletes: Comparison of rugby players and non-athletes","volume":"17","author":"Millard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sport Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2019.1688837","article-title":"Validation of an objective method for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of binocular accommodative facility","volume":"45","author":"Vera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e119406","DOI":"10.5812\/asjsm.119406","article-title":"Effect of a prolonged maximal bout of exercise on visual performance","volume":"13","author":"Shaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Asian J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polecho\u0144ski, J., and Langer, A. (2022). Assessment of the relevance and reliability of reaction time tests performed in immersive virtual reality by mixed martial arts fighters. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134762"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001732","article-title":"The top five peripheral vision tools in sport","volume":"98","author":"Vater","year":"2021","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2016.02.012","article-title":"A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research","volume":"15","author":"Koo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chiropr. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Nunnally, J.C., and Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-014-0719-y","article-title":"Peripheral vision and perceptual asymmetries in young and older martial arts athletes and non-athletes","volume":"76","author":"Ballesteros","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1229","article-title":"Comparing sensor-assisted and traditional hand-eye coordination tests: A concurrent validity study","volume":"25","author":"Wan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Phys. Educ. Sport"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-022-00409-y","article-title":"Survival versus attraction advantages and talent selection in sport","volume":"8","author":"Baker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Med. Open"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200838090-00001","article-title":"Talent identification and development programmes in sport: Current models and future directions","volume":"38","author":"Vaeyens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.2147\/OAJSM.S120344","article-title":"Age- and sex-related differences in the anthropometry and neuromuscular fitness of competitive taekwondo athletes","volume":"7","author":"Nikolaidis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open Access J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Norjali Wazir, M.R.W., Van Hiel, M., Mostaert, M., Deconinck, F.J.A., Pion, J., and Lenoir, M. (2019). Identification of elite performance characteristics in a small sample of taekwondo athletes. PLoS ONE, 14."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"39","article-title":"Gender-specific effects of cognitive functions in elite judokas","volume":"4","author":"Korobeynikov","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ido Mov. Cult. J. Martial Arts Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"e1179","article-title":"A review of the essential visual skills required for netball: Beyond 20\u201320 optometry","volume":"11","author":"Mathe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Appl. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1177\/0031512516681342","article-title":"Perceptual and motor performance of combat-sport athletes differs according to specific demands of the discipline","volume":"124","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poltavski, D., Biberdorf, D., and Praus Poltavski, C. (2021). Which comes first in sports vision training: The software or the hardware update?. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.732303"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2012.03.013","article-title":"Short-term adaptation of accommodation, accommodative vergence and disparity vergence facility","volume":"62","author":"Maxwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.4102\/AVEH.v83i1.981","article-title":"Essential visual skills required for boxing: A review","volume":"83","author":"Mahlangu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Afr. Vis. Eye Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2024.102744","article-title":"The role of the peripheral target in stimulating eye movements","volume":"76","author":"Piras","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3405","article-title":"The impact of microsaccades on vision: Toward a unified theory of saccadic function","volume":"14","author":"Macknik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steel, K.A., Kassem, L., Pang, B., Dogramaci, S., and MacMahon, C. (2024). Visual search strategies and game knowledge in junior Australian rules football players: Testing potential in talent identification and development. Front. Psychol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1356160"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1097\/01.opx.0000192346.84549.6a","article-title":"Dynamics of saccadic adaptation: Differences between athletes and nonathletes","volume":"82","author":"Babu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cano, L.A., Gerez, G.D., Garc\u00eda, M.S., Albarrac\u00edn, A.L., Farf\u00e1n, F.D., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Jover, E. (2024). Decision-making time analysis for assessing processing speed in athletes during motor reaction tasks. Sports, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports12060151"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-9457(02)00103-3","article-title":"Reaction times and anticipatory skills of karate athletes","volume":"21","author":"Mori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a679","DOI":"10.4102\/aveh.v82i1.679","article-title":"Vision and sports: An overview","volume":"82","author":"Ramaja","year":"2023","journal-title":"Afr. Vis. Eye Health"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, Y., Zhong, H., Gao, D., Zhuang, M., Long, Y., Wei, Q., Wang, D., Zhang, P., Zhao, Z., and Chen, C. (2025). The relationship between visual ability assessment and competitive boxing performance in female amateur boxers. Front. Physiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2025.1639227"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0862-1","article-title":"Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: A tutorial paper","volume":"50","author":"Epskamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-022-01743-2","article-title":"Are predictive saccades linked to the processing of peripheral information?","volume":"87","author":"Vater","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67019","DOI":"10.12775\/PPS.2025.28.67019","article-title":"The role of inhibitory control in taekwondo performance: A scoping review","volume":"28","author":"Du","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pedagog. Psychol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70140","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.70140","article-title":"Does visual training enhance athletes\u2019 decision-making skills and sport-specific performance? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"35","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1177\/00315125241235529","article-title":"Gaze behavior and cognitive performance on tasks of multiple object tracking and multiple identity tracking by handball players and non-athletes","volume":"131","author":"Styrkowiec","year":"2024","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alemanno, M., Di Pompeo, I., Marcaccio, M., Canini, D., Curcio, G., and Migliore, S. (2025). From gaze to game: A systematic review of eye-tracking applications in basketball. Brain Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202503.2114.v1"}],"container-title":["Vision"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5150\/10\/3\/38\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T02:01:05Z","timestamp":1782871265000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2411-5150\/10\/3\/38"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["vision10030038"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/vision10030038","relation":{},"ISSN":["2411-5150"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2411-5150","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]}}}