{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:51:59Z","timestamp":1790884319585,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vision"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myopia is an increasingly common refractive disorder in children, with growing concern regarding the potential role of screen time and digital device use in its development and progression. This systematic review assessed the association between screen-related behaviours and myopia in European children and adolescents. A systematic search of Ovid Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science and Cochrane\/CENTRAL was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidance. Original English-language studies published within the last 10 years were included if they involved participants aged &lt;18 years, were conducted in Europe, and investigated screen time, digital device use, near-work behaviour or related lifestyle exposures in relation to myopia-related outcomes. A total of 1196 records were identified across the databases. After duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and full-text assessment, 14 studies were included. Overall, the evidence suggested an association between screen-related behaviours, prolonged near work, reduced outdoor exposure and myopia-related outcomes in European children. However, findings were heterogeneous, and screen exposure was often measured using broad or proxy variables, including total screen time, smartphone use, internet data consumption, computer use, handheld near-screen use and COVID-19-related lifestyle change. Outdoor activity appeared to be a protective factor, while parental myopia was an important risk factor and confounder. Most included studies were observational, many were cross-sectional, and several relied on self- or parent-reported exposure measures, limiting causal inference and introducing potential recall bias. Overall, the certainty of evidence was low to very low. Practical advice should therefore be framed around balanced digital device use, regular breaks from prolonged near work, appropriate viewing distances and increased outdoor activity, while further longitudinal studies using objective screen-use measures, cycloplegic refraction and axial length outcomes are needed to clarify causality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vision10030043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T08:05:31Z","timestamp":1783929931000},"page":"43","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Screen Time and Myopia-Related Outcomes in European Children: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Hammaad","family":"Khalid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds LS1 3EX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Istanaksai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine, North Middlesex University Hospital, London N18 1QX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mishelle","family":"Abbasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Paediatrics, Airedale Hospital, Keighley BD20 6TD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25957","article-title":"IMI\u2014Defining and Classifying Myopia: A Proposed Set of Standards for Clinical and Epidemiologic Studies","volume":"60","author":"Flitcroft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Investig. 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