{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T16:00:59Z","timestamp":1790352059715,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":265,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vision"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The surface of the eye is directly exposed to the external environment, protected only by a thin tear film, and may therefore be damaged by contact with ambient particulate matter, liquids, aerosols, or vapors. In the workplace or home, the eye is subject to accidental or incidental exposure to cleaning products and pesticides. Organic matter may enter the eye and cause infection. Ocular surface damage can trigger a range of symptoms such as itch, discharge, hyperemia, photophobia, blurred vision, and foreign body sensation. Toxin exposure can be assessed clinically in multiple ways, including via measurement of tear production, slit-lamp examination, corneal staining, and conjunctival staining. At the cellular level, environmental toxins can cause oxidative damage, apoptosis of corneal and conjunctival cells, cell senescence, and impaired motility. Outcomes range from transient and reversible with complete healing to severe and sight-compromising structural changes. Classically, evaluation of tolerance and safety was carried out using live animal testing; however, new in vitro and computer-based, in silico modes are superseding the gold standard Draize test. This review examines how environmental features such as pollutants, temperature, and seasonality affect the ocular surface. Chemical burns to the eye are considered, and approaches to protect the ocular surface are detailed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vision7020032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,4]],"date-time":"2023-04-04T02:03:00Z","timestamp":1680573780000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Toxic External Exposure Leading to Ocular Surface Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6297-1599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven H.","family":"Rauchman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Fresno Institute of Neuroscience, Fresno, CA 93730, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9024-5882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brandon","family":"Locke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Biomedical Research Institute, NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY 11501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2549-214X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacqueline","family":"Albert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Biomedical Research Institute, NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY 11501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"De Leon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Biomedical Research Institute, NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY 11501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morgan R.","family":"Peltier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Jersey Shore University Medical Center, Neptune, NJ 07753, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4478-2441","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Allison B.","family":"Reiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Biomedical Research Institute, NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY 11501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1093\/toxres\/tfaa011","article-title":"Toxicity testing is evolving!","volume":"9","author":"Fischer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicol. 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