{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T07:00:18Z","timestamp":1791529218858,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Vision"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: This paper aims to provide an overview of corneal birefringence (CB), systematize the knowledge and current understanding of CB, and identify difficulties associated with introducing CB into mainstream clinical practice. Methods: Literature reviews were conducted, seeking articles focused on CB published between the early 19th century and the present time. Secondary-level searches were made examining relevant publications referred to in primary-level publications, ranging back to the early 17th century. The key search words were \u201ccorneal birefringence\u201d and \u201cnon-invasive measurements\u201d. Results: CB was first recorded by Brewster in 1815. Orthogonally polarized rays travel at different speeds through the cornea, creating a slow axis and a fast axis. The slow axis aligns with the pattern of most corneal stromal collagen fibrils. In vivo, it is oriented along the superior temporal\u2013inferior nasal direction at an angle of about 25\u00b0 (with an approximate range of \u221254\u00b0 to 90\u00b0) from the horizontal. CB has been reported to (i) influence the estimation of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness; (ii) be affected by corneal interventions; (iii) be altered in keratoconus; (iv) vary along the depth of the cornea; and (v) be affected by intra-ocular pressure. Conclusions: Under precisely controlled conditions, capturing the CB pattern is the first step in a non-destructive process used to model the ultra-fine structure of the individual cornea, and changes thereof, in vivo.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/vision9040090","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T03:44:39Z","timestamp":1761795879000},"page":"90","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Birefringence of the Human Cornea: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Sudi","family":"Patel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cataract and Refractive Surgery, University Eye Clinic Svjetlost, Heinzelova 39, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Larysa","family":"Tutchenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Corneal Pathology, Ophthalmic Oncology and Oculoplasty, Kyiv Clinical Ophthalmology Hospital Eye Microsurgery Center, Liubomyra Huzara Ave. 3, 03680 Kyiv, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9482-8746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Dmytruk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Hlushkova Ave. 4, 03127 Kyiv, Ukraine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(99)00527-8","article-title":"The effect of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy for myopia on nerve fiber layer thickness measurements as determined by scanning laser polarimetry","volume":"106","author":"Choplin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.3928\/1542-8877-20000301-09","article-title":"Human lens effect on in vivo scanning laser polarimetric measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness","volume":"31","author":"Collur","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg. 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