{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T02:13:35Z","timestamp":1782440015548,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663632000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Slovak Research and Development Agency","award":["APVV-20-0281"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APVV-20-0281"]}]},{"name":"The Slovak Research and Development Agency","award":["HUSKROUA\/1901\/8.1\/0088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HUSKROUA\/1901\/8.1\/0088"]}]},{"name":"Complex Flood-Control Strategy on the Upper-Tisza Catchment Area","award":["APVV-20-0281"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APVV-20-0281"]}]},{"name":"Complex Flood-Control Strategy on the Upper-Tisza Catchment Area","award":["HUSKROUA\/1901\/8.1\/0088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HUSKROUA\/1901\/8.1\/0088"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Flash floods threaten the lives of people and properties in different regions around the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions due to infrequent flood events. The current study aims to assess the geomorphological parameters of Wadi Sudr, South Sinai in Egypt to evaluate flash flood risks and provide adequate mitigation methods. This study presents an integrated method that combines geographic information system (GIS) and watershed modeling system (WMS) with HEC-HMS to visualize and assess flood events in the study area. Different morphologic parameters of the watershed were determined, including linear, areal, and relief parameters. GIS was used to analyze the satellite images and determine the characteristics of the valley to get the extension and number of stream orders in the valley, then WMS was used to estimate rainstorms and basin characteristics, as well as estimate the amount of rain that causes flooding. HEC-HMS program was used for hydrological demonstration and precipitation overflow estimation. The morphometric analysis provided a quantitative portrayal of the Wadi Sudr watershed. Wadi Sudr has 4029 streams connected with seventh order of streams spread over an area of 547.45 km2. Based on the results of morphologic and hydraulic parameters of the watershed, two locations of protection dams were suggested. A comparison between the two locations was made to select the best location based on some criteria, including storage capacity, water depth behind the dam, width and shape of the valley, and the area covered by water stored in the reservoir. The comparison between the two locations showed that the first location is more appropriate for dam construction based on the examined criteria. The valley shape in the first location is more regular than in the second. The first location provided higher storage capacity and water depth in front of the dam than the second. The area covered by water and the width of the valley is less than the second. The stability of the dam at the first site could be higher and the cost of construction could cost be less than the second due to these reasons. A comparison was made using the weighted linear combination (WLC) method, which consists of 13 criteria to determine the suitability index (SI) in order to select the best location from the proposed locations. SI proved that the first location is better than the second. The designed dam in the selected site could be cost-efficient to protect the study area from flood risks and harvesting water that can be used in different purposes. This methodology can be applied in different areas for mitigating flash flood risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w14192945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]],"date-time":"2022-09-21T00:08:09Z","timestamp":1663718889000},"page":"2945","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Evaluation and Mitigation of Flash Flood Risks in Arid Regions: A Case Study of Wadi Sudr in Egypt"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4896-4792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsayed M.","family":"Ramadan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water and Water Structures Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hossny A.","family":"Shahin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"El-Arish High Institute for Engineering and Technology, El-Arish 45511, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3894-6726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hany F.","family":"Abd-Elhamid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water and Water Structures Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"},{"name":"Center for Research and Innovation in Construction, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Kosice, 042 00 Kosice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7502-9586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martina","family":"Zelenakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Kosice, 042 00 Kosice, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8627-857X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazem M.","family":"Eldeeb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water and Water Structures Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Runoff hydrograph modeling for arid regions (case study: Wadi sudr\u2014Sinai)","volume":"5","author":"Fathy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Water Technol. J. IWTJ"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2079","DOI":"10.1002\/met.2079","article-title":"Hydrometeorological analysis of a flash flood event in an ungauged Mediterranean watershed under an operational forecasting and monitoring context","volume":"29","author":"Giannaros","year":"2022","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1889","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-1938-9","article-title":"Assessment of a flash flood event using different precipitation datasets","volume":"79","author":"Yucel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Lotfy, A. (2016, January 25\u201327). Assessment of spatial rainfall variation on runoff in Wadi Sudr, Sinai Peninsula. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Flash Floods in Wadi Systems, Hurghada, Egypt."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"122","article-title":"Analysis of morphometric parameters using remote-sensing data and GIS techniques in the Wadi El Gemal basin, Red Sea coast, Egypt","volume":"2","author":"Dewidar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens. GIS"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-010-0156-8","article-title":"Morphometric analysis and flash floods of Wadi Sudr and Wadi Wardan, Gulf of Suez, Egypt: Using digital elevation model","volume":"5","author":"Sherief","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1589-1","article-title":"Groundwater flow modeling of Quaternary aquifer Ras Sudr, Egypt","volume":"58","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"19","article-title":"Integrated GIS and remote sensing for runoff hazard analysis in Ain Sukhna industrial area, Egypt","volume":"17","author":"Shedid","year":"2006","journal-title":"Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"El-Sayed, E.A., and Habib, E. (2008, January 16\u201319). Advanced Technique for Rainfall-Runoff Simulation in Arid Catchments Sinai, Egypt. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Water Resources and Arid Environments (2008) and the First Arab Water Forum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.15680\/IJIRSET.2015.0404023","article-title":"Analysis of Watershed Characteristics Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques","volume":"4","author":"Shaikh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"32","article-title":"GIS based Morphometric Characterization of Mini Watershed-Rachhar Nala of Anuppur District Madhya Pradesh","volume":"3","author":"Soni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Technol. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"124","article-title":"Characterisation of drainage basin morphometric parameters of Balawal Watershed, Jammu province, Jammu, and Kashmir","volume":"35","author":"Thakur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Himal. Geol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aqpro.2015.02.172","article-title":"Prioritization of Sub Watershed Based on Morphometric Characteristics Using Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process and Geographical Information System. A Study of Kallar Watershed, Tamil Nadu","volume":"4","author":"Aruchamy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquat. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-009-0016-8","article-title":"Prioritization of sub-watersheds based on morphometric and land use analysis using remote sensing and GIS techniques","volume":"37","author":"Javed","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"76","article-title":"Analysis of the Flash Flood in Rhodes Island (South Greece) on 22 November 2013","volume":"16","author":"Chatzichristaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Silva Balc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diakakis, M. (2022). Characteristics of Infrastructure and Surrounding Geo-Environmental Circumstances Involved in Fatal Incidents Caused by Flash Flooding: Evidence from Greece. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14050746"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Omran, A., Schr\u00f6der, D., El Rayes, A., and Geriesh, M. (2011). Flood Hazard Assessment in Wadi Dahab, Egypt Based on Basin Morphometry Using GIS Techniques, Herbert Wichmann Verlag, VDE VERLAG GMBH."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"4","article-title":"Estimation of Lag Time and Peak Discharge of Flash Flood of Wadi Sudr in The Sinai Peninsula","volume":"17","author":"Negm","year":"2014","journal-title":"Egypt. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.06.008","article-title":"Flood Hazard Risk Assessment Model Based on Random Forest","volume":"527","author":"Wanga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-013-0639-5","article-title":"Assessment of Flood Hazard Based on Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)","volume":"68","author":"Stefanos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2011.555836","article-title":"Flood Management and A GIS Modelling Method to Assess Flood-Hazard Areas\u2014A Case Study","volume":"56","author":"Nektarios","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"137","article-title":"Estimating the Flash Flood Quantitative Parameters Affecting the Oil-Fields Infrastructures in Ras Sudr, Sinai, Egypt, During the January 2010 Event","volume":"18","author":"Gabr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-018-3316-x","article-title":"Flood prediction and mitigation in coastal tourism areas, a case study: Hurghada, Egypt","volume":"93","author":"Fathy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fathy, I., Abd-Elhamid, H., Zelenakova, M., and Kaposztasova, D. (2019). Effect of Topographic Data Accuracy on Watershed Management. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16214245"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.21608\/egjg.2021.101672.1008","article-title":"Flash Flood Risk in West- Central Sinai, Egypt","volume":"65","author":"Orabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Geol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elewa, H.H., Zelenakova, M., and Nosair, A.M. (2021). Integration of the Analytical Hierarchy Process and GIS Spatial Distribution Model to Determine the Possibility of Runoff Water Harvesting in Dry Regions: Wadi Watir in Sinai as a Case Study. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13060804"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12720","DOI":"10.1111\/jfr3.12720","article-title":"Integrated management of surface water and groundwater to mitigate flood risks and water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions","volume":"14","author":"Fathy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Flood Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-03996-9","article-title":"Highways protection from flood hazards, a case study: New Tama road, KSA","volume":"103","author":"Fathy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"168","article-title":"Geomorphological Hazard Map Along Southwestern Sinai Coast El-Tur Area Using GIS","volume":"5","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geopolit. Hist. Int. Relat."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Elsiad, A.A., Ramadan, E.M., and Magdy, A. (2017, January 23\u201325). Quantitative Evaluation of Drainage Basin Characteristics Using GIS Based Morphometric Analysis: A Case Study of Wadi Sudr. Proceedings of the 2017 3rd International Conference on Water Technology, Sinai, Egypt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1029\/TR013i001p00350","article-title":"Drainage-basin characteristics","volume":"13","author":"Horton","year":"1932","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1945)56[275:EDOSAT]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology","volume":"56","author":"Horton","year":"1945","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1952)63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography","volume":"63","author":"Strahler","year":"1952","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Chow, V.T. (1964). Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basin and channel networks. Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"328","article-title":"The index of drainage intensity-A provisional new drainage factor","volume":"31","author":"Faniran","year":"1968","journal-title":"Aust. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1956)67[597:EODSAS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey","volume":"67","author":"Schumm","year":"1956","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Miller, V.C. (1953). A quantitative Geomorphic Study of Drainage Basin Characteristic in the Clinch, Mountain Area, Virginia and Tennesser, Columbia University, Department of Geology, ONR, Geography Branch. Project NR 389-042, Technical Report 3."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"10","article-title":"Morphometric Analysis of Shaliganga Sub Catchment, Kashmir Valley, India Using Geographical Information System","volume":"4","author":"Iqbal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Trends Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"599","article-title":"Morphometric Analysis of Watershed using GIS and RS: A Review","volume":"3","author":"Sangle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1956)67[571:QSA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Quantitative slope analysis","volume":"67","author":"Strahler","year":"1956","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Sonbol, M.A., Mtalo, F., EL-Bihery, M., and Abdel-Motteleb, M. (2005, January 12\u201315). Watershed Modelling of Wadi Sudr and Wadi Al-Arbain in Sinai, Egypt. Proceedings of the International Conference of UNESCO Flanders Fust Friend\/Nile Project\u2014Towards A Better Cooperation, The 5th Project Management Meeting & 9th Steering Committee Meeting, Sharm El-Shiekh, Egypt."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sepro.2011.10.063","article-title":"Multi-objective decision making for land use planning with ordered weighted averaging method","volume":"2","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Syst. Eng. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810600661508","article-title":"GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis: A survey of the literature","volume":"20","author":"Malczewski","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0270-0255(87)90473-8","article-title":"The analytic hierarchy process\u2014What it is and how it is used","volume":"9","author":"Saaty","year":"1987","journal-title":"Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"ESRI (2022, September 12). November 20, ArcGIS. Available online: www.esri.com."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Othman, A.A., Al-Maamar, A.F., Al-Manmi, D.A.M.A., Liesenberg, V., Hasan, S.E., and Obaid, A.K. (2020). GIS-based modeling for selection of dam sites in the kurdistan region, Iraq. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu2020-2057"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-017-0912-6","article-title":"Natural hazard susceptibility assessment for road planning using spatial multi-criteria analysis","volume":"60","author":"Karlsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(1991). Design of Dams."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"768","article-title":"Analysis of Seepage through Earth Dams with Internal Core","volume":"8","author":"Salem","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/w17142053","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663632000000}}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/14\/19\/2945\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]],"date-time":"2025-08-03T14:11:26Z","timestamp":1754230286000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/14\/19\/2945"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["w14192945"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w14192945","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/w17142053","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]]}}}