{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T14:04:24Z","timestamp":1782396264696,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]],"date-time":"2024-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Water"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nowadays, agricultural practices require special attention due to their important contribution to water pollution, the more so as they are associated with environmental and health impairments. Despite legislation addressing nutrient pollution, there are still high levels of nutrients in water bodies, as evidenced by the results identified in the literature. Among nutrients of environmental concern identified in water and associated with agricultural practices are nitrogen and phosphorus. When applied in excess under fertilizer form, these nutrients accumulate in water bodies with consequences such as eutrophication or human health impairments if water is used for drinking. The purpose of this review paper is to present the current state of nutrient water pollution generated by unsustainable agricultural practices. In addition, are presented the main legislative regulations addressing water quality imposed by the European Union, are described aspects related to nitrogen and phosphorus pollution from agriculture, and levels of nutrients in water bodies from different European countries. Also, effects of agricultural pollution on the environment and humans are discussed, and possible strategies that could be employed to decrease or prevent water pollution are reviewed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/w16213146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]],"date-time":"2024-11-04T05:41:23Z","timestamp":1730698883000},"page":"3146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Nutrient Water Pollution from Unsustainable Patterns of Agricultural Systems, Effects and Measures of Integrated Farming"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9357-0664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roxana Maria","family":"Madjar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 59 Marasti Blvd., District 1, 011464 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5021-4750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gina","family":"Vasile Sc\u0103e\u021beanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 59 Marasti Blvd., District 1, 011464 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8202-1916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirela Alina","family":"Sandu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Land Reclamation and Environmental Engineering, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 59 Marasti Blvd., District 1, 011464 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations (2024, August 01). The 17 Goals. Available online: https:\/\/sdgs.un.org\/goals."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2008.05.014","article-title":"Agricultural nonpoint source water pollution policy: The case of California\u2019s Central Coast","volume":"128","author":"Dowd","year":"2008","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Statista (2024, September 15). Global Consumption of Agricultural Fertilizer from 1965 to 2021, by Nutrient. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/438967\/fertilizer-consumption-globally-by-nutrient\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-011-0832-9","article-title":"Managing agricultural phosphorus for water quality protection: Principles for progress","volume":"349","author":"Kleinman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2024.108791","article-title":"Nitrogen losses from soil as affected by water and fertilizer management under drip irrigation: Development, hotspots and future perspectives","volume":"296","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Directive 2000\/60\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 Establishing a Framework for Community in the Field of Water Policy. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2000\/60\/oj."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Fact Sheets on the European Union. Available online: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/factsheets\/en\/sheet\/74\/water-protection-and-management."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Council Directive 91\/676\/EEC of 12 December 1991 Concerning the Protection of Waters Against Pollution Caused by Nitrates from Agricultural Sources. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/1991\/676\/oj."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Directive 2006\/118\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the Protection of Groundwater Against Pollution and Deterioration. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2006\/118\/oj."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Directive (EU) 2020\/2184 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2020 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption (Recast). Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2020\/2184\/oj."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Philips, G., and Pitt, J.-A. (2024, October 18). A Comparison of European Freshwater Nutrient Boundaries Used for the Water Framework Directive: A Report to WG ECOSTAT. Available online: https:\/\/circabc.europa.eu\/sd\/a\/37778f00-5a8a-4198-9ff3-8b15360ba975\/ComparisonNutrientBoundaries_2016J_FINAL%20for%20CIRCABC(0).pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2024, August 02). Order 161\/2006 for the Approval of the Normative Concerning the Classification of Surface Water Quality to Establish the Ecological Status of Water Bodies. Official Journal of Romania 2006, 511 Bis. Available online: https:\/\/legislatie.just.ro\/Public\/DetaliiDocumentAfis\/74255."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anas, M., Liao, F., Verma, K., Sarwar, M.A., Mahmood, A., Chen, Z.-L., Li, Q., Liu, Y., and Li, Y.-R. (2020). Fate of nitrogen in agriculture and environment: Economic, eco-physiological and molecular approaches to improve nitrogen use efficiency. Biol. Res., 53.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40659-020-00312-4"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Madjar, R. (2008). Agrochemistry, Plant and Soil (In Romanian), INVEL-Multimedia."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-021-04521-8","article-title":"Fertilizers and nitrate pollution of surface and ground water and increasingly pervasive global problem","volume":"3","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.agron.2019.01.007","article-title":"Nitrate N loss by leaching and surface runoff in agricultural land: A global issue (a review)","volume":"Volume 156","author":"Sparks","year":"2019","journal-title":"Advances in Agronomy"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2024, August 20). Nitrate in Groundwater. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/en\/analysis\/indicators\/nitrate-in-groundwater-8th-eap?activeAccordion=ecdb3bcf-bbe9-4978-b5cf-0b136399d9f8#footnote-R2UN69VW."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.086","article-title":"Isotopic composition of nitrogen species in groundwater under agricultural areas: A review","volume":"621","author":"Nikolenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"375","article-title":"Tracing anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen to ecocystems","volume":"Volume 12","author":"Michener","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stable Isotopes in Ecology and Environmental Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1021\/es902670n","article-title":"Assessment of the sources of nitrate in the Changjiang River, China using a nitrogen and oxygen isotopic approach","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, S., Han, Y., Kim, J., Lim, B.R., Park, S.-Y., Choi, H., Park, M.R., Kim, E., Lee, S., and Huh, Y. (2023). A Quantitative Approach for Identifying Nitrogen Sources in Complex Yeongsan River Watershed, Republic of Korea, Based on Dual Nitrogen Isotope Ratios and Hydrological Model. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15244275"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10571","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10571","article-title":"Agriculture causes nitrate fertilization of remote alpine lakes","volume":"7","author":"Hundey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2024.108885","article-title":"Identifying the nitrate transport and transformation under apple orchards in the loess deposit sing stable isotopes of water and nitrate","volume":"364","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2018.01.011","article-title":"Nitrate sources, accumulation and reduction in groundwater from Northern Italy: Insights provided by a nitrate and boron isotopic database","volume":"91","author":"Martinelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.01.159","article-title":"Are boron isotopes a reliable tracer of anthropogenic inputs to rivers over time?","volume":"626","author":"Guinoiseau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s40808-016-0080-3","article-title":"Simulation of nitrate contamination in groundwater using artificial neural networks","volume":"2","author":"Ehteshami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Model. Earth Syst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wse.2022.05.002","article-title":"Modeling groundwater nitrate concentrations using spatial and non-spatial regression models in a semi-arid environment","volume":"15","author":"Atabati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stylianoudaki, C., Trichakis, I., and Karatzas, G.P. (2022). Modeling Groundwater Nitrate Contamination Using Artificial Neural Networks. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14071173"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Curk, M., Glavan, M., and Pintar, M. (2020). Analysis of Nitrate Pollution Pathways on a Vulnerable Agricultural Plain in Slovenia: Taking the Local Approach to Balance Ecosystem Services of Food and Water. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12030707"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.131996","article-title":"Nitrates in the environment: A critical review of their distribution, sensing, techniques, ecological effects and remediation","volume":"287","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasile Sc\u0103e\u021beanu, G., Madjar, R.M., and Peticil\u0103, G.A. (2019, January 26\u201327). Universal screening of private wells water quality in the Muntenia region, Romania. Proceedings of the International Symposium \u201cThe Environment and Industry\u201d, Bucharest, Romania.","DOI":"10.21698\/simi.2019.fp43"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"145","article-title":"Studies regarding nitrogen pollutants in well waters from Romania","volume":"53","author":"Pele","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Pap. Ser. A Agron."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.24193\/subbbiol.2017.1.01","article-title":"Nitrate, nitrite and microbial denitrification in drinking water from Ozun village (Covasna County, Romania) and the association between changes during water storage","volume":"62","author":"Raduly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stud. UBB Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"371","article-title":"Quality of drinking water supplies in Almasu rural area (Salaj County, Romania)","volume":"12","author":"Martonos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carpath. J. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2024.120770","article-title":"Defining the maximum nitrogen surplus in water management plans to recover nitrate polluted aquifers in Spain","volume":"356","author":"Arora","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-022-00632-0","article-title":"Spring waters as an indicator of nitrate and pesticide pollution of rural watercourses from nonpoint sources: Results of repeated monitoring campaigns since the early 2000s in the low mountain landscape of Saarland, Germany","volume":"34","author":"Weber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cruz, J.V., Andrade, C., Pacheco, D., Mendes, S., and Cymbron, R. (2017). Nitrates in Groundwater Discharges from the Azores Archipelago: Occurrence and Fluxes to Coastal Waters. Water, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/w9020125"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1556\/CRC.35.2007.2.170","article-title":"Nitrate concentration in drinking water from wells at three different locations in Northwest Croatia","volume":"35","author":"Mesic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cereal Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.2478\/jbcr-2023-0006","article-title":"Assessment of the measures implemented in Bulgarian legislation to reduce the content of nitrates in groundwater used for public water supply","volume":"16","author":"Bankova","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"29","article-title":"Trends in concentrations of nitrate in public water systems and private wells located in municipalities of the Ma\u010dva district (ten-year monitoring)","volume":"10","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1023\/B:EMAS.0000016791.73493.aa","article-title":"Nitrate, arsenic and chloride pollution of drinking water in Northern Greece. Elaboration by applying GIS","volume":"93","author":"Fytianos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Council Directive 98\/83\/EC of 3 November 1998 on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2007.06.013","article-title":"Evaluation of the quality of drinking water in regions of Greece","volume":"224","author":"Karavoltsos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"European Commission (2024, September 20). Nitrates: Commission Decides to Refer Greece to the Court of Justice and Asks for Financial Sanctions. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/commission\/presscorner\/detail\/en\/IP_19_1482."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021438310211","article-title":"Groundwater nitrate in Austria: A case study in Tullnerfeld","volume":"64","author":"Cepuder","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"89","article-title":"Groundwater nitrate risk assessment using intrinsic vulnerability methods: A comparative study of environmental impact by intensive farming in the Mediterranean region of Sicily, Italy","volume":"156","author":"Pisciotta","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.34194\/geusb.v7.4828","article-title":"Groundwater quality monitoring in Denmark","volume":"7","author":"Stockmarr","year":"2005","journal-title":"GEUS"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.10.037","article-title":"An isotope study of the sources of nitrate in Malta\u2019s groundwater","volume":"414\u2013415","author":"Heaton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Natural Resources Institute Finland (2024, September 20). Nitrate Content in Surface Water and Groundwater. Available online: https:\/\/www.luke.fi\/en\/statistics\/indicators\/cap-indicators\/nitrate-content-in-surface-water-and-groundwater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.07.048","article-title":"Trend study and assessment of surface water quality in the Ebro River (Spain)","volume":"361","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-326X(02)00227-8","article-title":"Ammonia toxicity in fish","volume":"45","author":"Randall","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9073763","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9073763","article-title":"Water pollution and water quality assessment of major transboundary rivers from Banat (Romania)","volume":"2018","author":"Dunca","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.17930\/AGL2023122","article-title":"Water quality monitoring of Moara Domneasc\u0103 pond, Ilfov County, using UAV-based RGB imaging","volume":"12","author":"Sandu","year":"2023","journal-title":"AgroLife Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"3","article-title":"The quality of Maros River water in Romania Hungary cross border area","volume":"46","author":"Berbecea","year":"2014","journal-title":"RJAS"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"35","article-title":"Assessment of water pollution with nitrogen and phosphorus along the course of a river: A case study from Northern Bulgaria","volume":"47","author":"Seymenov","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bulg. Geogr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1354(03)00398-1","article-title":"Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern Greece","volume":"37","author":"Simeonov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140849","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of river chemical status based on WFD methodolody and CCME water quality index","volume":"745","author":"Gikas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Fact Sheet (2024, September 20). Surface and Groundwater Pollution, Available online: https:\/\/www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr\/sites\/default\/files\/2022-08\/02_surface_and_groundwater_pollution.pdf."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.144125","article-title":"Identifying causes of poor water quality in a Polish agricultural catchment for designing effective and targeted mitigation measures","volume":"765","author":"Jarnuszewski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leoni, B., Patelli, M., Soler, V., and Nava, V. (2018). Ammonium Transformation in 14 Lakes along a Trophic Gradient. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10030265"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2024, August 20). Nitrate in Rivers and Groundwater\u2014Nutrients in European Water Bodies. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/data-and-maps\/daviz\/nitrate-in-groundwater-and-rivers-2#tab-chart_2."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2024, August 20). Ammonium in European Rivers. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/data-and-maps\/daviz\/rivers-ammonium-7\/#tab-chart_3."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lizcano-Toledo, R., Reyes-Mart\u00edn, M.P., Celi, L., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Ondo\u00f1o, E. (2021). Phosphorus Dynamics in the Soil\u2013Plant\u2013Environment Relationship in Cropping Systems: A Review. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app112311133"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.17930\/AGL2022228","article-title":"Mineral fertilization\u2014An important factor in obtaining maize harvests","volume":"11","author":"Russu","year":"2022","journal-title":"AgroLife Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Fageria, N.K. (2009). The Use of Nutrients in Crop Plants, CRC Press Taylor&Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.07.057","article-title":"Phosphate oxygen isotopes within aquatic ecosystems: Global data synthesis and future research priorities","volume":"496","author":"Davies","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2004.08.035","article-title":"The oxygen isotope composition of dissolved anthropogenic phosphates: A new tool for eutrophication research?","volume":"39","author":"Gruau","year":"2005","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.3390\/pollutants4030021","article-title":"Isotopic Differentiation (\u03b418OPO4) of Inorganic Phosphorus among Organic Wastes for Nutrient Runoff Tracing Studies: A Summary of the Literature with Refinement of Livestock Estimates for Grand Lake St. Marys Watershed (Ohio)","volume":"4","author":"Jacquemin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pollutants"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.09.007","article-title":"The oxygen isotopic composition of phosphate in river water and its potential sources in the Upper River Taw catchment, UK","volume":"574","author":"Granger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5372","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c07170","article-title":"Evaluation of phosphorus entichment in groundwater by legacy phosphorus in orchard soils with high phosphorus adsorption capacity using phosphate oxygen isotope analysis","volume":"58","author":"Ishida","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1002\/lom3.10165","article-title":"Determination of total phosphorus in natural waters with a simple neutral digestion method using sodium persulfate","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd, C.E. (2020). Phosphorus. Water Quality, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-23335-8"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Johnson, A.E., and Steen, I. (2024, September 10). Understanding Phosphorus and Its Use in Agriculture. European Fertilizers Manufacturers Association. Available online: https:\/\/fertiliser-society.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/EFMA-Phosphorus-booklet-2000.pdf."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-020-8138-0","article-title":"Using high-frequency phosphorus monitoring for water quality management: A case study of the upper River Itchen, UK","volume":"192","author":"Fones","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janicka, E., Kanclerz, J., Wiatrowska, K., and Budka, A. (2022). Variability of nitrogen and phosphorus content and their forms in waters of a river-lake system. Front. Environ. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2022.874754"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Umwelt Bundesamt (2024, August 20). Indicator: River Eutrophication by Phosphorus. Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/en\/data\/environmental-indicators\/indicator-river-eutrophication-phosphorus#at-a-glance."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2024, August 20). Hungarian Central Statistical Office. Available online: https:\/\/www.ksh.hu\/stadat_files\/kor\/en\/kor0028.html."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2024, August 20). Nutrients in Freshwater in Europe. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/en\/analysis\/indicators\/nutrients-in-freshwater-in-europe."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1080\/07438149609354283","article-title":"Trophic state of clear and colored, soft- and hardwater lakes with special consideration of nutrients, anoxia, phytoplankton and fish","volume":"12","year":"1996","journal-title":"Lake Reserv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"137","article-title":"Water quality in the Murray-Darling Basin: The potential impacts of climate change","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Hart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecohydrology from Catchment to Coast"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandu, M.A., Madjar, R.M., Preda, M., V\u00eersta, A., Stavrescu-Bedivan, M.-M., and Vasile Sc\u0103e\u021beanu, G. (2023). Assessment of Water Quality and Parasitofauna, and a Biometric Analysis of the Prussian Carp of the Romanian Lentic Ecosystem in Moara Domneasc\u0103, Ilfov County. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15223978"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8923","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b02204","article-title":"Reducing phosphorus to curb lake eutrophication is a success","volume":"50","author":"Schindler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2015.10.046","article-title":"A multi-stable isotope framework to understand eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems","volume":"88","author":"Gooddy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154993","article-title":"Assessment of eutrophication potential from fertilizer application in agricultural systems in Thailand","volume":"833","author":"Balasuriya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph2005010043","article-title":"Health Risk Assessment of Cyanobacterial (Blue-green Algal) Toxins in Drinking Water","volume":"2","author":"Falconer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins7041374","article-title":"One Health and Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Systems: Animal Illnesses and Deaths Are Sentinel Events for Human Health Risks","volume":"7","author":"Hilborn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(81)80053-8","article-title":"Health aspects of nitrate in drinking water","volume":"18","author":"Fraser","year":"1981","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-1497","article-title":"Infant methemoglobinemia: The role of dietary nitrate in food and water","volume":"116","author":"Greer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7216","article-title":"Drinking-water nitrate, methemoglobinemia, and global burden of disease: A discussion. Environ","volume":"112","author":"Fewtrell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"WHO (2024, August 20). Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water. Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/environment-climate-change-and-health\/water-sanitation-and-health\/chemical-hazards-in-drinking-water\/nitrate-nitrite."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-019-0525-z","article-title":"Impact of high drinking water nitrate levels on the endogenous formation of apparent N-nitroso compounds in combination with meat intake in healthy volunteers","volume":"18","author":"Mathijs","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/19338244.2020.1842313","article-title":"Drinking-water nitrate and cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"77","author":"Essien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Occup. Health"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.112988","article-title":"Nitrate and nitrite contamination in drinking water and cancer risk: A systematic review with meta-analysis","volume":"210","author":"Piacetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-023-00960-5","article-title":"The potential human hazard of nitrates in drinking water: A media discourse analysis in a high-income country","volume":"22","author":"Grout","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.167368","article-title":"Health-economic valuation of lowering nitrate standards in drinking water related to colorectal cancer in Denmark","volume":"906","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2007.10.002","article-title":"High-nitrate levels in drinking water may be a risk factor for thyroid dysfunction in children and pregnant woman living in rural Bulgarian areas","volume":"211","author":"Gatseva","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, M.H., Jones, R.R., Brender, J.D., De Kok, T.M., Weyer, P.J., Nolan, B.T., Villanueva, C.M., and Van Breda, S.G. (2018). Drinking Water Nitrate and Human Health: An Updated Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15071557"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, L., St Clair, S., Gamble, G., Crowther, C., Dixon, L., Bloomfield, F., and Harding, J. (2023). Nitrate contamination in drinking water and adverse reproductive and birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-27345-x"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.niox.2023.05.008","article-title":"Reduction in blood pressure following acute dietary nitrate ingestion is correlated with increased red blood cell S-nitrosothiol concentrations","volume":"138-139","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nitric Oxide"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.2176","article-title":"Water pollution by agriculture","volume":"363","author":"Moss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u010cesonien\u0117, L., \u0160ileikien\u0117, D., \u010citeik\u0117, L., Mozgeris, G., and Takayoshi, K. (2023). The Impact of Organic and Intensive Agricultural Activity on Groundwater and Surface Water Quality. Water, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/w15061240"},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"University of Minnesota Extension (2024, August 15). Nutrient Management. Crop Calculators. Available online: https:\/\/apps.extension.umn.edu\/agriculture\/nutrient-management\/crop-calculators."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"NSW Government (2024, August 15). Crop Nutrient Replacement: Calculator for Fertilizer Requirements, Available online: https:\/\/www.dpi.nsw.gov.au\/agriculture\/horticulture\/tropical\/fertilising\/replacement."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Johnson, A.E., and Dawson, C.J. (2005). Phosphorus in Agriculture and in Relation to Water Quality, Conferederation House."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05481-8","article-title":"Cost-effective mitigation of nitrogen pollution from global croplands","volume":"613","author":"Gu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.09.186","article-title":"Environmentally friendly fertilizers: A review of materials used and their effects on the environment","volume":"613-614","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114553","article-title":"Measures for reducing nitrate leaching in orchards: A review","volume":"263","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2017.01.0029","article-title":"Two-dimensional modelling of nitrate flux in a commercial apple orchard","volume":"81","author":"Hardie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconhyd.2013.05.004","article-title":"Nitrate fluxes to groundwater under citrus orchards in a Mediterranean climate: Observations, calibrated models, simulations and agro-hydrological conclusions","volume":"151","author":"Kurtzman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Contam. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Sparks, D. (2019). Novel Practices and Smart Technologies to Maximize the Nitrogen Fertilizer Value of Manure for Crop Production in Cold Humid Temperate Regions. Advances in Agronomy, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2024, August 01). Directive 2010\/75\/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on Industrial Emissions (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) (Recast). Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2010\/75\/oj."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kova\u010di\u0107, \u0110., Lon\u010dari\u0107, Z., Jovi\u0107, J., Samac, D., Popovi\u0107, B., and Ti\u0161ma, M. (2022). Digestate Management and Processing Practices: A Review. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12189216"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2023.102525","article-title":"Nudging farmers to reduce water pollution from nitrogen fertilizer","volume":"120","author":"Chai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Policy"}],"container-title":["Water"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/16\/21\/3146\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:27:36Z","timestamp":1760113656000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4441\/16\/21\/3146"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]]},"references-count":113,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["w16213146"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w16213146","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4441"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4441","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,3]]}}}