{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:41:53Z","timestamp":1782924113640,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":171,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002347","name":"Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Bildung und Forschung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FKZ16EMO0288"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FKZ16EMO0288"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002347","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["WEVJ"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The launch of both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and autonomous vehicles (AVs) on the global market has triggered ongoing radical changes in the automotive sector. On the one hand, the new characteristics of the BEV powertrain compared to the combustion type have resulted in new central parameters, such as vehicle range, which then become an important selling point. On the other hand, electric components are as yet not optimized and the sensors needed for autonomous driving are still expensive, which introduces changes to the vehicle cost structure. This transformation is not limited to the vehicle itself but also extends to its mobility and the necessary infrastructure. The former is shaped by new user behaviors and scenarios. The latter is impacted by the BEV powertrain, which requires a charging and energy supply infrastructure. To enable manufacturers and researchers to develop and optimize BEVs and AVs, it is necessary to first identify the relevant parameters and costs. To this end, we have conducted an extensive literature review. The result is a complete overview of the relevant parameters and costs, divided into the categories of vehicle, infrastructure, mobility, and energy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj12010021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T20:31:51Z","timestamp":1612384311000},"page":"21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":287,"title":["An Overview of Parameter and Cost for Battery Electric Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8296-226X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrian","family":"K\u00f6nig","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4411-1947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Nicoletti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2538-2952","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Schr\u00f6der","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6937-3313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Wolff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Waclaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Lienkamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 15, 85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, L., Bronner, M., Danquah, B., Koch, A., Konig, A., Krapf, S., Pathak, A., Schockenhoff, F., Sethuraman, G., and Wolff, S. (2020, January 10\u201312). Review of trends and potentials in the vehicle concept development process. Proceedings of the 2020 Fifteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte-Carlo, Monaco.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER48776.2020.9243115"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Trommer, S., Kolarova, V., Fraedrich, E., Kr\u00f6ger, L., Kickh\u00f6fer, B., Kuhnimhof, T., Lenz, B., and Phleps, P. (2016). Autonomous Driving. The Impact of Vehicle Automation on Mobility Behavior, Institute for Mobility Research. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/312374304_Autonomous_Driving_-_The_Impact_of_Vehicle_Automation_on_Mobility_Behaviour."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, L., Romano, A., K\u00f6nig, A., Schockenhoff, F., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Parametric Modeling of Mass and Volume Effects for Battery Electric Vehicles, with Focus on the Wheel Components. WEVJ, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj11040063"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Kochhan, R., Fuchs, S., Reuter, B., Burda, P., Matz, S., and Lienkamp, M. (2020, December 15). An Overview of Costs for Vehicle Components, Fuels and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/260339436_An_Overview_of_Costs_for_Vehicle_Components_Fuels_and_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Fries, M., Kerler, M., Rohr, S., and Schickram, S. (2020, October 28). An Overview of Costs for Vehicle Components, Fuels, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Total Cost of Ownership: Update 2017. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/319136996_An_Overview_of_Costs_for_Vehicle_Components_Fuels_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_and_Total_Cost_of_Ownership_-_Update_2017."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"OFX (2020, October 28). Yearly Average Rates. Available online: https:\/\/www.ofx.com\/en-au\/forex-news\/historical-exchange-rates\/yearly-average-rates\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Triami Media BV (2020, October 28). Historic Harmonised Inflation Europe\u2013HICP Inflation. Available online: https:\/\/www.inflation.eu\/en\/inflation-rates\/europe\/historic-inflation\/hicp-inflation-europe.aspx."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Miller, J. (2020, December 08). Electric Car Costs to Remain Higher than Traditional Engines. Available online: https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/a7e58ce7-4fab-424a-b1fa-f833ce948cb7."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ruffo, G. (2020, December 08). EVs Are Still 45% More Expensive to Make Than Combustion-Engined Cars. Available online: https:\/\/insideevs.com\/news\/444542\/evs-45-percent-more-expensive-make-ice\/."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampker, A., Vall\u00e9e, D., and Schnettler, A. (2018). Elektromobilit\u00e4t, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53137-2"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-018-0107-2","article-title":"Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries","volume":"3","author":"Schmuch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Matz, S., Fuchs, J., Burda, P., Horlbeck, L., Eckl, R., and Lienkamp, M. (2020, October 28). Beschreibung der Modellierungsart Sowie der Modellierungsparameter von Elektrofahrzeugen in der Konzeptphase. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/261174335_Beschreibung_der_Modellierungsart_sowie_der_Modellierungsparameter_von_Elektrofahrzeugen_in_der_Konzeptphase."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Scrosati, B., Garche, J., and Tillmetz, V. (2015). Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles, Woodhead Publishing. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A5019","DOI":"10.1149\/2.0251701jes","article-title":"The Development and Future of Lithium Ion Batteries","volume":"164","author":"Blomgren","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Anderman, M. (2020, October 08). Extract from the xEV Insider Report. Available online: https:\/\/totalbatteryconsulting.com\/industry-reports\/xEV-report\/Extract-from-the-xEV-Industry-Report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bargende, M., Reuss, H.-C., and Wiedemann, J. (2016). Li-ion batteries for automotive applications\u2013Quo vadis. Internationales Stuttgarter Symposium, Springer Fachmedien.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-13255-2"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Fuchs, S. (2014). Verfahren zur Parameterbasierten Gewichtsabsch\u00e4tzung neuer Fahrzeugkonzepte. [Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008-017-3610-7","article-title":"Lithium ion, lithium metal, and alternative rechargeable battery technologies: The odyssey for high energy density","volume":"21","author":"Placke","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Solid State Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Thielmann, A., Neef, C., Hettesheimer, T., D\u00f6scher, H., Wietschel, M., and T\u00fcbke, J. (2020, October 01). Energiespeicher-Roadmap (Update 2017). Hochenergie-Batterien 2030+ und Perspektiven Zuk\u00fcnftiger Batterietechnologien. Available online: https:\/\/www.isi.fraunhofer.de\/content\/dam\/isi\/dokumente\/cct\/lib\/Energiespeicher-Roadmap-Dezember-2017.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Volkswagen AG (2020, June 29). Powerful and Scalable: The New ID. Battery System. Available online: https:\/\/www.volkswagenag.com\/en\/news\/stories\/2018\/10\/powerful-and-scalable-the-new-id-battery-system.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201401986","article-title":"Lithium-Sulfur Cells: The Gap between the State-of-the-Art and the Requirements for High Energy Battery Cells","volume":"5","author":"Hagen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Frieske, B., van der Adel, B., Schwarz-Kocher, M., Stieler, S., Schnabel, A., and T\u00f6z\u00fcn, R. (2020, October 26). Strukturstudie BWe Mobil 2019: Transformation durch Elektromobilit\u00e4t und Perspektiven der Digitalisierung. Available online: https:\/\/www.e-mobilbw.de\/service\/meldungen-detail\/strukturstudie-bwe-mobil-2019."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, L., Mirti, S., Schockenhoff, F., K\u00f6nig, A., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Derivation of Geometrical Interdependencies between the Passenger Compartment and the Traction Battery Using Dimensional Chains. WEVJ, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj11020039"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Knecht, J., Stegmaier, G., and Hebermehl, G. (2020, October 28). Tesla Battery Day 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.auto-motor-und-sport.de\/tech-zukunft\/tesla-battery-day-neue-zellen-kosten-halbiert\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Bos, C. (2020, October 25). Tesla\u2019s New Structural Battery Pack\u2014It\u2019s Not Cell-to-Pack, It\u2019s Cell-to-Body. Available online: https:\/\/cleantechnica.com\/2020\/10\/10\/teslas-new-structural-battery-pack-its-not-cell-to-pack-its-cell-to-body\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2016.2571783","article-title":"Performance Analysis of Current BEVs Based on a Comprehensive Review of Specifications","volume":"2","author":"Grunditz","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrific."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s35146-018-0133-4","article-title":"Das Antriebssystem des neuen Jaguar I-Pace","volume":"80","author":"Fuchss","year":"2019","journal-title":"MTZ Motortech. Z."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1365\/s35146-011-0084-5","article-title":"Voltec\u2013Das Antriebssystem f\u00fcr Chevrolet Volt und Opel Ampera","volume":"72","author":"Grebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"MTZ Motortech. Z."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"ADAC (2019, November 26). Autodatenbank. Available online: https:\/\/www.adac.de\/infotestrat\/autodatenbank\/autokatalog\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Busche, I. (2014). Ein Beitrag zur Optimierten Konzeptauslegung von Fahrzeugen im Bereich der Elektromobilit\u00e4t. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Magdeburg]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.03.002","article-title":"The lithium-ion battery: State of the art and future perspectives","volume":"89","author":"Zubi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joule.2019.06.002","article-title":"The Underestimated Potential of Battery Electric Vehicles to Reduce Emissions","volume":"3","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Joule"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2564","article-title":"Rapidly falling costs of battery packs for electric vehicles","volume":"5","author":"Nykvist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philippot, M., Alvarez, G., Ayerbe, E., van Mierlo, J., and Messagie, M. (2019). Eco-Efficiency of a Lithium-Ion Battery for Electric Vehicles: Influence of Manufacturing Country and Commodity Prices on GHG Emissions and Costs. Batteries, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries5010023"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-018-0108-1","article-title":"Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets","volume":"3","author":"Cano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Nationale Plattform Zukunft der Mobilit\u00e4t (2020, April 08). 1. Kurzbericht der AG 2-Elektromobilit\u00e4t. Brennstoffzelle. Alternative Kraftstoffe-Einsatzm\u00f6glichkeiten aus Technologischer Sicht (1st Short Report of AG 2-Electromobility. Fuel Cell. Alternative Fuel Applications from a Technological Perspective.). Available online: https:\/\/www.plattform-zukunft-mobilitaet.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/NPM-AG-2-Elektromobilit%C3%A4t-Brennstoffzelle-Alternative-Kraftstoffe-Einsatzm%C3%B6glichkeiten-aus-technologischer-Sicht.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wentker, M., Greenwood, M., and Leker, J. (2019). A Bottom-Up Approach to Lithium-Ion Battery Cost Modeling with a Focus on Cathode Active Materials. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12030504"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Hettesheimer, T., Thielmann, A., Neef, C., M\u00f6ller, K.-C., Wolter, M., Lorentz, V., Gepp, M., Wenger, M., Prill, T., and Zausch, J. (2020, December 15). Entwicklungsperspektiven f\u00fcr Zellformate von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien in der Elektromobilit\u00e4t (Development Prospects for Cell Formats of Lithium-ion Batteries in Electromobility). Available online: https:\/\/www.batterien.fraunhofer.de\/content\/dam\/batterien\/de\/documents\/Allianz_Batterie_Zellformate_Studie.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kerler, M. (2018). Eine Methode zur Bestimmung der Optimalen Zellgr\u00f6\u00dfe f\u00fcr Elektrofahrzeuge. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelson, P.A., Gallagher, K.G., Bloom, I., and Dees, D.W. (2020, November 05). Modeling the Performance and Cost of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric-Drive Vehicles, Available online: https:\/\/publications.anl.gov\/anlpubs\/2011\/10\/71302.pdf.","DOI":"10.2172\/1027714"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Romare, M., and Dahll\u00f6f, L. (2020, December 15). The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries. Available online: http:\/\/www.energimyndigheten.se\/globalassets\/forskning--innovation\/transporter\/c243-the-life-cycle-energy-consumption-and-co2-emissions-from-lithium-ion-batteries-.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Emilsson, E., and Dahll\u00f6f, L. (2019). Lithium-Ion Vehicle Battery Production, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, Q., Kelly, J.C., Gaines, L., and Wang, M. (2019). Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Automotive Applications. Batteries, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries5020048"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/s11027-019-09869-2","article-title":"Globally regional life cycle analysis of automotive lithium-ion nickel manganese cobalt batteries","volume":"25","author":"Kelly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3390\/vehicles2020020","article-title":"On the Impact of Maximum Speed on the Power Density of Electromechanical Powertrains","volume":"2","author":"Schweigert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vehicles"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, L., Mayer, S., Br\u00f6nner, M., Schockenhoff, F., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Design Parameters for the Early Development Phase of Battery Electric Vehicles. WEVJ, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj11030047"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Angerer, C.R. (2020). Antriebskonzept-Optimierung f\u00fcr Batterieelektrische Allradfahrzeuge. [Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Automotive Technology, Technical University of Munich, Verlag Dr. Hut]."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2018.2869371","article-title":"A Simulation Platform for Optimization of Electric Vehicles with Modular Drivetrain Topologies","volume":"4","author":"Nemeth","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrific."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1007\/s35146-012-0484-1","article-title":"5. Elektrische Fahrantriebe Topologien Und Wirkungsgrad","volume":"73","author":"Kasper","year":"2012","journal-title":"MTZ Motortech. Z."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoletti, L., Ostermann, F., Heinrich, M., Stauber, A., Lin, X., and Lienkamp, M. (2020). Topology analysis of electric vehicles, with a focus on the traction battery. Forsch. Ing.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10010-020-00422-1"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Rimac Automobili C_Two Hypercar (2020, October 26). Rimac Automobili C_Two Hypercar\u2014A Car Alive with Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.rimac-automobili.com\/en\/hypercars\/c_two\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Porsche Newsroom (2020, October 26). Der Antrieb: Performance pur. Available online: https:\/\/newsroom.porsche.com\/de\/produkte\/taycan\/antrieb-18543.html."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naunheimer, H., Bertsche, B., Ryborz, J., Novak, W., and Fietkau, P. (2019). Fahrzeuggetriebe. Grundlagen, Auswahl, Auslegung und Konstruktion, Springer. [3rd ed.]. Auflage 2019.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-58883-3"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dominguez Olavarria, G., Marquez-Fernandez, F.J., Fyhr, P., Reinap, A., Andersson, M., and Alak\u00fcla, M. (2017, January 22\u201324). Scalable performance, efficiency and thermal models for electric drive components used in powertrain simulation and optimization. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC.2017.7993345"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pesce, T. (2014). Ein Werkzeug zur Bestimmung von Individuell Optimalen Antriebsstr\u00e4ngen f\u00fcr Elektrofahrzeuge. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen]."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Ried, M. (2016). L\u00f6sungsraumanalyse f\u00fcr Plug-In-Hybridfahrzeuge Hinsichtlich Wirtschaftlichkeit und Bauraumkonzept. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e4t Duisburg-Essen, Lehrstuhl f\u00fcr Mechatronik]."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Chang, F. (2019). Improving the Partial Load Efficiency of Electric Powertrains by Silicon MOSFET Multilevel Inverters. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Munich]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wacker, P., Wheldon, L., Sperlich, M., Adermann, J., and Lienkamp, M. (2017, January 22\u201324). Influence of active battery switching on the drivetrain efficiency of electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC.2017.7993243"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, F., Ilina, O., Hegazi, O., Voss, L., and Lienkamp, M. (2017, January 11\u201314). Adopting MOSFET multilevel inverters to improve the partial load efficiency of electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 2017 19th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE'17 ECCE Europe), Warsaw, Poland.","DOI":"10.23919\/EPE17ECCEEurope.2017.8099071"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brooker, A., Gonder, J., Wang, L., Wood, E., Lopp, S., and Ramroth, L. (2015, January 21\u201323). FASTSim: A Model to Estimate Vehicle Efficiency, Cost and Performance. Proceedings of the SAE 2015 World Congress & Exhibition, Detroit, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/2015-01-0973"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-014-0792-4","article-title":"Electric passenger car transport and passenger car life cycle inventories in ecoinvent version 3","volume":"21","author":"Gauch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"WirtschaftsWoche (2020, December 09). Zusammensetzung des Preises Eines Neuwagens in Deutschland. Available online: https:\/\/de.statista.com\/statistik\/daten\/studie\/387632\/umfrage\/zusammensetzung-des-neuwagenpreises-in-deutschland\/."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Institute of Automotive Technology (FTM) (2020). Figures Based on Expert Discussions, Institute Automotive Technology (FTM): Technical University of Munich."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Mosquet, X., Dauner, T., Lang, N., Russmann, M., Mei-Pochtler, A., Agrawal, R., and Schmieg, F. (2015). Revolution in the Driver's Seat: The Road to Autonomous Vehicles, The Boston Consulting Group."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Priddle, A., and Woodyard, C. (2020, October 27). Google Discloses Costs of Ist Driverless Car Tests. Available online: http:\/\/content.usatoday.com\/communities\/driveon\/post\/2012\/06\/google-discloses-costs-of-its-driverless-car-tests\/1."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Krok, A. (2020, October 27). Velodyne Just Made Self-Driving Cars a Bit Less Expensive. Available online: https:\/\/www.cnet.com\/roadshow\/news\/velodyne-just-made-self-driving-cars-a-bit-less-expensive-hopefully\/."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Velodyne Lidar (2020, October 27). Velodyne Slashes the Price in Half of Its Most Popular LiDAR Sensor. Available online: https:\/\/velodynelidar.com\/press-release\/velodyne-slashes-the-price-in-half-of-its-most-popular-lidar-sensor\/."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Ouster, Inc (2020, October 27). Ouster OS1 Mid-Range LiDAR Sensor. Available online: https:\/\/ouster.com\/products\/os1-lidar-sensor\/."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Deyle, T. (2020, October 27). Velodyne HDL-32E: A New High-End Laser Rangefinder. Available online: http:\/\/www.hizook.com\/blog\/2010\/08\/24\/velodyne-hdl-32e-new-high-end-laser-rangefinder."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Pacala, A. (2020, October 27). The ES2: The First True Solid-State High-Performance Digital Lidar. Available online: https:\/\/ouster.com\/blog\/the-es2-the-first-true-solid-state-high-performance-digital-lidar\/."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"General Laser (2020, October 27). Mid-Range Lidar Sensors-Ouster OS1. Available online: https:\/\/www.general-laser.at\/shop-de\/lidar-de\/ouster-os1-de."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Woodside Capital Partners WCP (2020, November 10). The Automotive LiDAR Market. Available online: http:\/\/www.woodsidecap.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/04\/Yole_WCP-LiDAR-Report_April-2018-FINAL.pdf."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Nvidia (2020, October 30). Jetson AGX Xavier. Available online: https:\/\/www.nvidia.com\/de-de\/autonomous-machines\/embedded-systems\/jetson-agx-xavier\/."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"SYSTEMPlus Consulting (2020, October 30). A Tesla Model 3 Tear-Down after a Hardware Retrofit. Available online: https:\/\/www.eetimes.com\/a-tesla-model-3-tear-down-after-a-hardware-retrofit\/4\/."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"MVV (2020, June 15). Der MVV in Zahlen. Available online: https:\/\/www.mvv-muenchen.de\/mvv-und-service\/der-verbund\/mvv-in-zahlen\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00f6sch, P.M., Becker, F., Becker, H., and Axhausen, K.W. (2018). Cost-based analysis of autonomous vehicle services. Transp. Policy.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2017.09.005"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arellano, J.F., and Fang, K. (2019). Sunday Drivers, or Too Fast and Too Furious?. Transp. Find.","DOI":"10.32866\/001c.11210"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"BFS, and ARE (2020, December 18). Swiss Federal Statistical Office (BFS) and Swiss Federal Office for Spatial Development (ARE)-Mobilit\u00e4t in der Schweiz-Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus Mobilit\u00e4t und Verkehr 2010. Available online: https:\/\/www.bfs.admin.ch\/bfs\/en\/home\/statistics\/catalogues-databases\/publications.assetdetail.348719.html."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hardt, C., and Bogenberger, K. (2017, January 11\u201317). Usability of escooters in urban environments-a pilot study. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2017.7995946"},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"INRIX (2020, December 18). INRIX Global Traffic Scorecard. Available online: https:\/\/inrix.com\/scorecard\/."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"INRIX (2020, September 30). Manchester Revealed as UK City with the Most Potential for Shared Bikes and E-Scooters. Available online: https:\/\/inrix.com\/press-releases\/micromobility-study-uk-2019\/."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00e4ger, B., Wittmann, M., and Lienkamp, M. (2016). Analyzing and modeling a City\u2019s spatiotemporal taxi supply and demand: A case study for Munich. J. Traffic Logist. Eng., 4.","DOI":"10.18178\/jtle.4.2.147-153"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiao, J., and Bai, S. (2020). Understanding the Shared E-scooter Travels in Austin, TX. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9020135"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198196153800104","article-title":"Field Studies of Pedestrian Walking Speed and Start-Up Time","volume":"1538","author":"Knoblauch","year":"1996","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2015.07.027","article-title":"The German Naturalistic Cycling Study\u2013Comparing cycling speed of riders of different e-bikes and conventional bicycles","volume":"92","author":"Schleinitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Wachotsch, U., Kolodziej, A., Specht, B., Kohlmeyer, R., and Petrikowski, F. (2020, December 18). E-Rad Macht Mobil: Potenziale von Pedelecs und Deren Umweltwirkung. Available online: https:\/\/www.umweltbundesamt.de\/sites\/default\/files\/medien\/378\/publikationen\/hgp_e-rad_macht_mobil_-_pelelecs_4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, Z., Younes, H., Erdo\u011fan, S., and Wu, J. (2020). Exploratory Analysis of Real-Time E-Scooter Trip Data in Washington, DC. Transp. Res. Rec., 0361198120919760.","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198120919760"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sperling, D. (2018). Three Revolutions: Steering Automated, Shared, and Electric Vehicles to a Better Future, Island Press.","DOI":"10.5822\/978-1-61091-906-7"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2019.10.001","article-title":"Near-(2020) and long-term (2030\u20132035) costs of automated, electrified, and shared mobility in the United States","volume":"85","author":"Compostella","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Policy"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ongel, A., Loewer, E., Roemer, F., Sethuraman, G., Chang, F., and Lienkamp, M. (2019). Economic assessment of autonomous electric microtransit vehicles. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11030648"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, L., and Tawfik, A.M. (2018, January 4\u20137). Estimating future travel costs for autonomous vehicles (AVs) and shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs). Proceedings of the 2018 21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2018.8569715"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2018.2857208","article-title":"Comparing Future Autonomous Electric Taxis with an Existing Free-Floating Carsharing System","volume":"20","author":"Dandl","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"European Comission (2019). DG MOVE-Handbook on the External Costs of Transport, European Comission."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Bieler, C., and Sutter, D. (2020, December 20). Externe Kosten des Verkehrs in Deutschland. Stra\u00dfen-, Schienen-, Luft-und Binnenschiffverkehr, Available online: https:\/\/www.allianz-pro-schiene.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/08\/190826-infras-studie-externe-kosten-verkehr.pdf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f6ssling, S., Choi, A., Dekker, K., and Metzler, D. (2019). The Social Cost of Automobility, Cycling and Walking in the European Union. Ecol. Econ., 158.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2018.12.016"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2015.09.022","article-title":"External costs of electric vehicles","volume":"42","author":"Jochem","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Weiss, C., Mallig, N., Heilig, M., Schneidereit, T., Franke, T., and Vortisch, P. (2016, January 10\u201314). How much range is required? A model based analysis of potential battery electric vehicle usage. Proceedings of the Transportation Research Board 95th Annual Meeting, Washington DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its.2014.0169","article-title":"Range comfort zone of electric vehicle users\u2013concept and assessment","volume":"9","author":"Trantow","year":"2015","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1109\/TSG.2013.2278723","article-title":"Design Criteria for Electric Vehicle Fast Charge Infrastructure Based on Flemish Mobility Behavior","volume":"5","author":"Machiels","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Smart Grid"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Pfriem, M. (2015). Analyse der Realnutzung von Elektrofahrzeugen in Kommerziellen Flotten zur Definition Einer Bedarfsgerechten Fahrzeugauslegung. [Ph.D. Thesis, Karlsruher Institut f\u00fcr Technologie]."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corchero, C., Gonzalez-Villafranca, S., and Sanmarti, M. (2014, January 17\u201319). European electric vehicle fleet: Driving and charging data analysis. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEVC.2014.7056144"},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Krug, S., Krey, O., Ohm, B., Weider, M., Ziem-Milojevic, S., and Braune, O. (2020, November 15). Elektromobilit\u00e4t in der Praxis. Zweiter Ergebnisbericht des Zentralen Datenmonitorings des F\u00f6rderprogramms Elektromobilit\u00e4t vor Ort. Available online: https:\/\/www.now-gmbh.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/now_elektromobilitaet-in-der-praxis-zdm.pdf."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Schuster, A. (2008). Batterie- bzw. Wasserstoffspeicher bei elektrischen Fahrzeugen. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Technical University of Wien]."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2020.03.179","article-title":"Analysis of charging behavior when using battery electric vehicles in commercial transport","volume":"46","author":"Fieltsch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Betz, J., Hann, M., J\u00e4ger, B., and Lienkamp, M. (2017, January 4\u20137). Evaluation of the potential of integrating battery electric vehicles into commercial companies on the basis of fleet test data. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCSpring.2017.8108289"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waclaw, A., Aloise, T., and Lienkamp, M. (2020, January 28\u201330). Charging infrastructure design for commercial company sites with battery electric vehicles: A case study of a Bavarian Bakery: Article submitted for publication. Proceedings of the 2020 Fifteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte-Carlo, Monaco.","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER48776.2020.9242989"},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"European Parliament (1996). Directive (EU) 96\/53\/EC of 25 July 1996 Laying down fo Rcertain Road Vehicles Circulating within the Community the Maximum Authorized Dimensions in National and International Traffic and the Maximum Authorized Weights Ininternational Traffic, European Parliament. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX%3A31996L0053."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e1rquez-Fern\u00e1ndez, F.J., Domingues, G., Lindgren, L., and Alak\u00fcla, M. (2017, January 7\u201310). Electric Roads: The importance of sharing the infrastructure among different vehicle types. Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo, Asia-Pacific (ITEC Asia-Pacific), Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC-AP.2017.8080780"},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"6402","article-title":"Technoecological analysis of energy carriers for long-haul transportation","volume":"49","author":"Wolff","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Bateman, D., Leal, D., Reeves, S., Emre, M., Stark, L., Ognissanto, F., Myers, R., and Lamb, M. (2020, October 15). Electric Road Systems: A Solution for the Future?. Available online: https:\/\/www.piarc.org\/en\/order-library\/29690-en-Electric%20road%20systems:%20a%20solution%20for%20the%20future."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Moultak, M., Lutsey, N., and Hall, D. (2021, February 02). Transitioning to Zero-Emission Heavy-Duty Freight Vehicles. Available online: https:\/\/theicct.org\/publications\/transitioning-zero-emission-heavy-duty-freight-vehicles."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"(2021, January 10). Gesetz f\u00fcr den Ausbau Erneuerbarer Energien (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz-EEG 2017) (Act for the Expansion of Renewable Energies [Renewable Energies Act-EEG 2017]). Available online: https:\/\/www.gesetze-im-internet.de\/eeg_2014\/EEG_2017.pdf."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Federal Minister for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (2020, December 15). Klimaschutzprogramm 2030 der Bundesregierung zur Umsetzung des Klimaschutzplans 2050 (Climate Protection Program 2030 of the Federal Government to implement the Climate Protection Plan 2050). Available online: https:\/\/www.bundesregierung.de\/resource\/blob\/975226\/1679914\/e01d6bd855f09bf05cf7498e06d0a3ff\/2019-10-09-klima-massnahmen-data.pdf."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt, P.R., Zittel, W., Weindorf, W., and Raksha, T. (2016). Renewables in Transport 2050. Empowering a Sustainable Mobility Future with zero Emission Fuels from Renewable Electricity, Springer. Kraftstoffstudie II Final Report.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-13255-2_15"},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Agora Verkehrswende, Agora Energiewende, and Frontier Economics (2018, May 02). The Future Cost of Electricity-Based Synthetic Fuels. Available online: https:\/\/static.agora-verkehrswende.de\/fileadmin\/Projekte\/2017\/Die_Kosten_synthetischer_Brenn-_und_Kraftstoffe_bis_2050\/Agora_SynKost_Study_EN_WEB.pdf."},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"Dena (2020, December 15). Dena-Leitstudie Integrierte Energiewende (dena Lead Study on Integrated Energy Transition) Impulse f\u00fcr die Gestaltung des Energiesystems bis 2050. Available online: https:\/\/www.dena.de\/fileadmin\/dena\/Dokumente\/Pdf\/9261_dena-Leitstudie_Integrierte_Energiewende_lang.pdf."},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"Kost, C., and Schlegl, T. (2020, December 15). Stromgestehungskosten erneuerbare Energien (Electricity Generation Costs Renewable Energies). Available online: https:\/\/www.ise.fraunhofer.de\/content\/dam\/ise\/de\/documents\/publications\/studies\/DE2018_ISE_Studie_Stromgestehungskosten_Erneuerbare_Energien.pdf."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"World Bank (2020, December 16). State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2020. Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.worldbank.org\/bitstream\/handle\/10986\/33809\/9781464815867.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"Manager Magazin (2020, November 30). CO2-Steuern und Emissionshandel: Diese CO2-Preise Gibt es Schon Heute (CO2 Taxes and Emissions Trading: These CO2 Prices Already Exist Today). Available online: https:\/\/www.manager-magazin.de\/fotostrecke\/co2-steuer-diese-preise-gibt-es-schon-heute-fotostrecke-169692.html."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (2020, November 30). Elements of RGGI. Available online: https:\/\/www.rggi.org\/program-overview-and-design\/elements."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"C40 (2020, November 30). C40: Shenzhen Carbon Emission Trading System. Available online: https:\/\/www.c40.org\/case_studies\/shenzhen-carbon-emission-trading-system."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (2020, November 30). California Cap and Trade. Available online: https:\/\/www.c2es.org\/content\/california-cap-and-trade\/."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"\u00c5kerfeldt, S., and Waluszewski, D. (2020, December 16). Carbon Taxation in Sweden, Available online: https:\/\/www.government.se\/492a01\/contentassets\/419eb2cafa93423c891c09cb9914801b\/200224-carbon-tax-sweden---general-info.pdf."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Quandl (2020, December 16). ECX EUA Futures, Continuous Contract #1 (C1) (Front Month). Available online: https:\/\/www.quandl.com\/data\/CHRIS\/ICE_C1-ECX-EUA-Futures-Continuous-Contract-1-C1-Front-Month."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"World Bank (2020, December 16). State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2018. Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.worldbank.org\/bitstream\/handle\/10986\/29687\/9781464812927.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"California Environmental Protection Agency (2020, December 16). Overview of ARB Emissions Trading Program, Available online: https:\/\/ww2.arb.ca.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/classic\/\/cc\/capandtrade\/guidance\/cap_trade_overview.pdf."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"European Energy Exchange AG (2020, December 16). China Beijing Environment Exchange (CBEEX). Available online: https:\/\/www.eex.com\/en\/markets\/environmental-markets\/chinese-carbon-market."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"California Air Ressource Board (2020, December 16). California and Qu\u00e9bec Carbon Allowance Prices, Available online: https:\/\/ww2.arb.ca.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2020-09\/carbonallowanceprices_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Office Publications (2020, December 15). Regulation (EC) No 595\/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on Type-Approval of Motor Vehicles and Engines with Respect to Emissions from Heavy Duty Vehicles (Euro VI) and on Access to Vehicle Repair and Maintenance Information and Amending Regulation (EC) No 715\/2007 and Directive 2007\/46\/EC and Repealing Directives 80\/1269\/EEC, 2005\/55\/EC and 2005\/78\/EC. Regulation (EC) No 595\/2009. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/DE\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX%3A32009R0595."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"Office Publications (2020, December 15). Regulation (EU) 2019\/1242 of the European Parliament and of the Council of of 20 Junel 2019 Setting CO2 Emission Performance Standards for New Heavy-Duty Vehicles and Amending Regulations (EC) No 595\/2009 and (EU) 2018\/956 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Directive 96\/53\/EC; 2019. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/LSU\/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1242."},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"Rexeis, M., Quaritsch, M., Hausberger, S., Silberholz, G., Kies, A., Steven, H., Gosch\u00fctz, M., and Vermeulen, R. (2021, February 02). VECTO Tool Development: Completion of Methodology to Simulate Heavy Duty Vehicles' Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions. Upgrades to the Existing Version of VECTO and Completion of Certification Methodology to be Incorporated into a Commission Legislative Proposal. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/clima\/sites\/clima\/files\/transport\/vehicles\/docs\/sr7_lot4_final_report_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_132","unstructured":"Statista (2020, September 23). Mobility Market Outlook. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/outlook\/mobility-markets."},{"key":"ref_133","unstructured":"ADAC (2020, December 18). Database for Vehicles. Available online: https:\/\/www.adac.de\/rund-ums-fahrzeug\/autokatalog\/marken-modelle\/."},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"AutoScout24 (2020, July 15). Fahrzeugbewertung. Available online: https:\/\/www.autoscout24.de\/fahrzeugbewertung\/."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"KBA (2020, December 18). Fahrzeugzulassungen (FZ): Neuzulassungen von Kraftfahrzeugen nach Umwelt-Merkmalen. Jahr 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.kba.de\/DE\/Statistik\/Produktkatalog\/produkte\/Fahrzeuge\/fz14_n_uebersicht.html."},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"BMWi (2020, December 18). Bekanntmachung der Richtlinie zur F\u00f6rderung des Absatzes von elektrisch betriebenen Fahrzeugen (Umweltbonus). Available online: https:\/\/www.bmwi.de\/Redaktion\/DE\/Downloads\/B\/bekanntmachung-der-richtlinie-zur-foerderung-absatzes-von-elektrisch-betriebenen-fahrzeugen-umweltbonus.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"check24.de (2020, July 25). Vehicle Insurance Comparison Site. Available online: https:\/\/www.check24.de\/kfz-versicherung\/."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Bundesregierung (2020, December 18). Entwurf eines Siebten Gesetzes zur \u00c4nderung des Kraftfahrzeugsteuergesetzes. Available online: https:\/\/www.bundesfinanzministerium.de\/Content\/DE\/Gesetzestexte\/Gesetze_Gesetzesvorhaben\/Abteilungen\/Abteilung_III\/19_Legislaturperiode\/2020-06-12-7-Aenderung-Kraftfahrzeugsteuergesetz\/1-Regierungsentwurf.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Bundesregierung (2020, December 17). Kraftfahrzeugsteuergesetz in der Fassung der Bekanntmachung vom 26. September 2002 (BGBl. I S. 3818). Available online: http:\/\/www.gesetze-im-internet.de\/kraftstg\/KraftStG_2002.pdf."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"T\u00dcV (2020, September 25). Hauptuntersuchung (HU) Geb\u00fchren. Available online: https:\/\/www.tuvsud.com\/de-de\/branchen\/mobilitaet-und-automotive\/hauptuntersuchung\/gebuehren."},{"key":"ref_141","unstructured":"ADAC (2020, October 10). Autokosten-Rechner. Available online: https:\/\/www.adac.de\/infotestrat\/autodatenbank\/autokosten\/autokosten-rechner\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"Reifendirekt.de (2020, October 10). Reifendirekt. Available online: https:\/\/www.reifendirekt.de."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"DAT (2020, December 18). DAT Report 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.dat.de\/news\/dat-report-2018-jetzt-erhaeltlich\/."},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"ADAC (2020, December 18). ADAC Autokosten Herbst\/Winter 2019\/2020-Kosten\u00fcbersicht f\u00fcr \u00fcber 1.600 aktuelle Neuwagen-Modelle. Available online: https:\/\/www.adac.de\/_mmm\/pdf\/autokostenuebersicht_47085.pdf."},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"INRIX (2020, August 11). INRIX Studie zu den Kosten des Autofahrens: Parken Verursacht die H\u00f6chsten laufenden Ausgaben. Available online: https:\/\/inrix.com\/press-releases\/inrix-studie-zu-den-kosten-des-autofahrens-parken-verursacht-die-hochsten-laufenden-ausgaben\/."},{"key":"ref_146","unstructured":"Fahrrad.de (2020, December 17). Fahrrad.de-Studie zu Allgemeinen Fahrradnutzung in Deutschland 2015. Available online: https:\/\/www.fahrrad.de\/on\/demandware.static\/-\/Library-Sites-bikester\/default\/dw7f90cb9f\/Blog\/studie-fahrradnutzung-deutschland.pdf."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"VSF (2020, September 15). VSF-Fachhandelsmitglieder zur Entwicklung des Jahres 2018 (Verbund Service und Fahrrad). Available online: https:\/\/nationaler-radverkehrsplan.de\/de\/aktuell\/nachrichten\/durchschnittspreis-aller-verkauften-fahrraeder-lag."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"Zweirad-Industrie-Verband (2020, December 18). Zweirad-Industrie-Verband (ZIV)-Wirtschaftspressekonferenz am 11. M\u00e4rz 2020 in Berlin: Zahlen\u2013Daten\u2013Fakten zum Fahrradmarkt in Deutschland 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.ziv-zweirad.de\/fileadmin\/redakteure\/Downloads\/Marktdaten\/PK-2020_11-03-2020_Praesentation.pdf."},{"key":"ref_149","unstructured":"Zweirad-Industrie-Verband e.V. (ZIV) (2020). Average Cost of Bicycles, Interview with Head of Marketing and Communications."},{"key":"ref_150","unstructured":"Fahrradblog.de (2020, October 03). Fahrradblog-Fahrradinspektion\u2013Wartung mit Checkliste. Available online: https:\/\/www.fahrradblog.de\/sicherheit\/fahrradinspektion-wartung-mit-checkliste\/#Kosten_fuer_Fahrradinspektion."},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"Schwalbe (2020, August 03). Verschleiss Reifen. Available online: https:\/\/www.schwalbe.com\/de\/verschleiss."},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"GHOST-BIKES (2020, October 03). User Manual for Bicycles. Available online: https:\/\/www.ghost-bikes.com\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/Downloads\/Bedienungsanleitung\/GHOST_bike_user_manual_german.pdf."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"Bundesregierung (2020, December 18). Elektrokleinstfahrzeuge-Verordnung vom 6. Juni 2019 (BGBl. I S. 756). Available online: https:\/\/www.gesetze-im-internet.de\/ekfv\/BJNR075610019.html."},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"Bundesregierung (2020, December 18). Stra\u00dfenverkehrs-Zulassungs-Ordnung vom 26. April 2012 (BGBl. I S. 679). Available online: https:\/\/www.gesetze-im-internet.de\/stvzo_2012\/BJNR067910012.html."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Severengiz, S., Finke, S., Schelte, N., and Wendt, N. (2020, January 5\u20137). Life cycle assessment on the mobility service E-Scooter sharing. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE European Technology and Engineering Management Summit (E-TEMS), Dortmund, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/E-TEMS46250.2020.9111817"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2020.102874","article-title":"Survey of E-scooter users in Vienna: Who they are and how they ride","volume":"89","author":"Laa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_157","unstructured":"Schellong, D., Sadek, P., Schaetzberger, C., and Barrack, T. (2020, December 18). The Promise and Pitfalls of E-Scooter Sharing. Available online: https:\/\/image-src.bcg.com\/Images\/BCG-The-Promise-and-Pitfalls-of-E-Scooter%20Sharing-May-2019_tcm81-220107.pdf."},{"key":"ref_158","unstructured":"CarSharing.de (2020, December 18). CarSharing-St\u00e4dteranking 2019: Karlsruhe ist weiterhin Spitzenreiter. Available online: https:\/\/carsharing.de\/presse\/pressemitteilungen\/carsharing-staedteranking-2019-karlsruhe-ist-weiterhin-spitzenreiter."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/s10257-017-0355-x","article-title":"Carsharing business models in Germany: Characteristics, success and future prospects","volume":"16","author":"Boon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_160","unstructured":"ShareNow (2020, October 10). Preis\u00fcberblick. Available online: https:\/\/www.share-now.com\/de\/de\/pricing\/?cid=sn_ppc_de_all_none_performance_google_prsitelink_none_none_none_none_none_none_none_none&gclid=CjwKCAjww5r8BRB6EiwArcckC5R-gZb6mzlaAPSRDluq_OWgddb2W8a7nEk2sJR142NgSBfmgb-d3hoCj0MQAvD_BwE."},{"key":"ref_161","unstructured":"STATTAUTO (2020, December 18). Preise. Available online: https:\/\/www.stattauto-muenchen.de\/standardtarif\/."},{"key":"ref_162","unstructured":"MVG (2020, December 18). MVG Rad. Available online: https:\/\/www.mvg.de\/services\/mobile-services\/mvg-rad.html?pk_campaign=03_Generic_Standort&pk_kwd=%2Bleihr\u00e4der%20%2Bm\u00fcnchen&pk_source=GoogleAds&pk_medium=cpc."},{"key":"ref_163","unstructured":"Heineke, K., Kloss, B., Scurtu, D., and Weig, F. (2020, December 18). Micromobility\u2019s 15,000-Mile Checkup. Available online: https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/industries\/automotive-and-assembly\/our-insights\/micromobilitys-15000-mile-checkup."},{"key":"ref_164","unstructured":"Tier (2020, December 18). Tier App. Available online: https:\/\/mytier.app."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zagorskas, J., and Burinskien\u0117, M. (2019). Challenges Caused by Increased Use of E-Powered Personal Mobility Vehicles in European Cities. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12010273"},{"key":"ref_166","unstructured":"Emmy (2020, November 02). Emmy-Sharing: Preise. Available online: https:\/\/emmy-sharing.de."},{"key":"ref_167","unstructured":"Ennen, D., and Heilker, T. (2020, December 18). Ride-Hailing Services in Germany: Potential Impacts on Public Transport, Motorized Traffic, and Social Welfare. Available online: https:\/\/ideas.repec.org\/p\/mut\/wpaper\/29.html."},{"key":"ref_168","unstructured":"Uber (2020, December 18). Uber. Available online: https:\/\/www.uber.com\/de\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_169","unstructured":"M\u00fcnchen, L. (2020, December 18). TaxitarifO 410-Verordnung der Landeshauptstadt M\u00fcnchen \u00fcber Bef\u00f6rderungsentgelte und Bef\u00f6rderungsbedingungen f\u00fcr den Verkehr mit Taxen (Taxitarifordnung). Available online: https:\/\/www.muenchen.de\/rathaus\/Stadtrecht\/vorschrift\/410.pdf."},{"key":"ref_170","unstructured":"MVV (2020, October 31). MVV-Pl\u00e4ne zum Download. Available online: https:\/\/www.mvv-muenchen.de\/plaene-bahnhoefe\/plaene\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_171","unstructured":"MVV (2020, August 20). Pressemitteilungen. Available online: https:\/\/www.mvv-muenchen.de\/mvv-und-service\/presse\/index.html."}],"container-title":["World Electric Vehicle Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2032-6653\/12\/1\/21\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:19:36Z","timestamp":1760159976000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2032-6653\/12\/1\/21"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]},"references-count":171,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["wevj12010021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/wevj12010021","relation":{},"ISSN":["2032-6653"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2032-6653","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]}}}