{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T06:05:11Z","timestamp":1782972311432,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,25]],"date-time":"2021-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["WEVJ"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to depleting fossil fuel reserves coupled with a climate crisis, sustainability is gaining ground, and electric vehicles (EVs) are emerging to be the new face of this field. However, the idea of EVs will be genuinely sustainable only if they are charged using renewable energy. This paper presents results from the design of a solar-powered EV charging station for an Indian context. PVsyst 7.2 software has been used for the system design. The analysis, based on the number of cars charged annually, the monthly variation in energy generation, the investment cost, and the decrease in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions using different module technologies for six Indian cities, has been deliberated. The results indicate that an off-grid 8.1 kWp system with two days of battery autonomy has the fewest unused energy losses, with a good performance ratio (PR). It can completely charge around 414 vehicles of 30 kWh battery capacity annually. This would help to reduce annual CO2 emissions by approximately 7950 kg. For cities near the equator, maximum energy is produced during March or January, and for cities near the Tropic of Cancer, energy production maximizes during May\u2013June. The overall system has better energy generation and economy when monocrystalline modules are used.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj12030132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,25]],"date-time":"2021-08-25T23:25:50Z","timestamp":1629933950000},"page":"132","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Design and Analysis of a Solar-Powered Electric Vehicle Charging Station for Indian Cities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Aanya","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal and Energy Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shubham Sanjay","family":"Shaha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal and Energy Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikhil P","family":"G","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar Resource Division, National Institute of Solar Energy, Gurugram 122003, Haryana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4921-6331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yendaluru Raja","family":"Sekhar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0490-4766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaik","family":"Saboor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermal and Energy Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9409-7592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aritra","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Renewable Energy, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2016.05.045","article-title":"The Diverse Worlds of Coal in India: Energising the Nation, Energising Livelihoods","volume":"99","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Press Trust of India (2021, July 08). Electric Vehicle Market in India Expected to Hit 63 Lakh Units per Annum Mark by 2027: IESA. Available online: https:\/\/yourstory.com\/2020\/12\/electric-vehicle-market-india-expected-hit-63lakh-iesa\/amp."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suzuki, K., Kobayashi, Y., Murai, K., and Ikezoe, K. (2020). Impact of EV Charging on Power System with High Penetration of EVs: Simulation and Quantitative Analysis Based on Real World Usage Data. SAE Technical Paper Series, SAE International.","DOI":"10.4271\/2020-01-0531"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2019.12.008","article-title":"Real-World Study for the Optimal Charging of Electric Vehicles","volume":"6","author":"Kostopoulos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2539","DOI":"10.1007\/s42835-020-00547-x","article-title":"Electric Vehicles Charging Technology Review and Optimal Size Estimation","volume":"15","author":"Brenna","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electr. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Sharma, A., Kapoor, A., and Chakrabarti, S. (2021, July 09). Impact of Plug-in Electric Vehicles on Power Distribution System of Major Cities of India: A Case Study. Available online: https:\/\/home.iitk.ac.in\/~ansharma\/EV_Report_V1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandra Mouli, G.R., Van Duijsen, P., Grazian, F., Jamodkar, A., Bauer, P., and Isabella, O. (2020). Sustainable E-Bike Charging Station That Enables AC, DC and Wireless Charging from Solar Energy. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13143549"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2015.03.274","article-title":"Energy Storage System Using Battery and Ultracapacitor on Mobile Charging Station for Electric Vehicle","volume":"68","author":"Atmaja","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.23713\/HT.54.4.03","article-title":"Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Charging Technologies","volume":"54","author":"Altaleb","year":"2020","journal-title":"Haditechnika"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"383","article-title":"College of Engineering Trivandrum. Smart Grid Implementation in India with HVDC Transmission and MicroGrids","volume":"6","author":"Krishnan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"123","article-title":"Feasibility Analysis of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Deployment in India","volume":"487","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"India Smart Grid Forum Week"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2020.07.022","article-title":"Development of an Off-Grid Electrical Vehicle Charging Station Hybridized with Renewables Including Battery Cooling System and Multiple Energy Storage Units","volume":"6","author":"Bicer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Simone, D., and Piegari, L. (2019). Integration of Stationary Batteries for Fast Charge EV Charging Stations. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12244638"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Benedetto, M., Ortenzi, F., Lidozzi, A., and Solero, L. (2021). Design and Implementation of Reduced Grid Impact Charging Station for Public Transportation Applications. World Electric. Veh. J., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj12010028"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badea, G., Felseghi, R.-A., Varlam, M., Filote, C., Culcer, M., Iliescu, M., and R\u0103boac\u0103, M. (2018). Design and Simulation of Romanian Solar Energy Charging Station for Electric Vehicles. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12010074"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.4130\/jaev.9.1453","article-title":"Design of Electric Vehicle Charging Station in Macau","volume":"9","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Asian Electric. Veh."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.01.110","article-title":"System design for a solar powered electric vehicle charging station for workplaces","volume":"168","author":"Mouli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1002\/ep.11898","article-title":"Solar Powered Charge Stations for Electric Vehicles","volume":"33","author":"Goldin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kongjeen, Y., Yenchamchalit, K., and Bhumkittipich, K. (2018, January 20\u201324). Optimal Sizing and Placement of Solar Powered Charging Station under EV Loads Penetration Using Artificial Bee Colony Technique. Proceedings of the 2018 International Power Electronics Conference (IPEC-Niigata 2018 -ECCE Asia), Niigata, Japan.","DOI":"10.23919\/IPEC.2018.8508028"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, K., Wolde, H.K., and Alarefi, S.M.S. (October, January 28). Optimal Space Utilisation for Solar Powered EV Charging Station. Proceedings of the 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCon), Gammarth, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ENERGYCon48941.2020.9236538"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, H., and Burke, A. (2014, January 17\u201319). An Intelligent Solar Powered Battery Buffered EV Charging Station with Solar Electricity Forecasting and EV Charging Load Projection Functions. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEVC.2014.7056169"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Martin (2021, July 09). Sustainable Development Goals Kick off with Start of New Year. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/blog\/2015\/12\/sustainable-development-goals-kick-off-with-start-of-new-year\/."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, A. (2020). Possibilities and Challenges for the Inclusion of the Electric Vehicle (EV) to Reduce the Carbon Footprint in the Transport Sector: A Review. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13102602"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.19026\/rjaset.7.263","article-title":"Review on Electric Vehicle, Battery Charger, Charging Station and Standards","volume":"7","author":"Ayob","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.30.3.2073","article-title":"Climate Change, Zoonoses and India: -EN- -FR- Le Changement Climatique et Les Zoonoses En Inde -ES- Cambio Clim\u00e1tico y Zoonosis En La India","volume":"30","author":"Singh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2021, July 08). Solar Resource Maps and GIS Data for 200+ Countries. Available online: https:\/\/solargis.com\/maps-and-gis-data\/download\/india."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2021, July 08). Available online: https:\/\/weatherspark.com\/."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pawar, N., and Nema, P. (2020, January 26\u201328). Optimum Sizing of PV Solar Based Standalone Energy System. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Inventive Computation Technologies (ICICT), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICT48043.2020.9112430"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"5322","article-title":"Design and Simulation of Standalone Solar PV System Using PVsyst Software: A Case Study","volume":"46","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, P., Kumar, N., and Chandel, S.S. (2015, January 22\u201323). Simulation and Performance Analysis of a 1kWp Photovoltaic System Using PVsyst. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy, Information and Communication (ICCPEIC), Melmaruvathur, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCPEIC.2015.7259481"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2021, July 09). Tata Nexon EV\u2014The Electric Compact SUV in India Powered by Ziptron. Available online: https:\/\/nexonev.tatamotors.com\/?id=home."}],"container-title":["World Electric Vehicle Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2032-6653\/12\/3\/132\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:51:28Z","timestamp":1760165488000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2032-6653\/12\/3\/132"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,25]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["wevj12030132"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/wevj12030132","relation":{},"ISSN":["2032-6653"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2032-6653","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,25]]}}}