{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]],"date-time":"2025-11-10T21:16:26Z","timestamp":1762809386402,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"DIUFRO","award":["EP-DI14-0079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP-DI14-0079"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Agronomy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing industrial pulp production has led to a negative growth of the associated solid wastes, thus making necessary alternative ways of handling them in suitable sanitary landfills to minimize adverse effects on the environment and well-being of people. Solid waste treatment prior to its disposal is a target to minimize pollution of the natural resources (air, soil, water) due to accidental leaching. This paper aims to determine better experimental conditions in the container to develop an optimal composting design for pulp solid wastes. For this, an experimental methodology is introduced. This paper presents the results about the influence of independent control variables (grits addition and composting process time) on dependent variables (chemical and biological), for which a composting design was used, and a face-centered central composite factor was applied. The results showed mature compost over 60-day treatment, with the following experimental observations (i) the grits addition did not decrease the pH in the first stage of the composting process; and (ii) the microbial activities were high during the active stage of the composting progress and evolved to stable, lower values together with a proper trend of N\u2013NH4+ and N\u2013NO3\u2212 at the end. Grits addition of around 6% is the optimal experimental amount to use for the composting process of the secondary sludge from the Kraft mill industry. In conclusion, treating secondary sludges and grit residues from the Kraft mill industry to produce compost is feasible and sustainable. This action reduces the environmental pollution risk (evidenced by soil pH change and possible water pollution) and improves the soil assimilation capability of inorganic micronutrients and organic compounds after application. Thus, the controlled waste reuse will pass from a negative input to the environment to a positive, sustainable solution, which can be used as a soil-nutrient improver in agriculture.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy13041099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T01:35:08Z","timestamp":1681263308000},"page":"1099","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Composting as an Alternative for the Treatment of Solid Waste from the Kraft Pulp Industry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Marcia","family":"Zambrano Riquelme","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Qu\u00edmica, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile"}]},{"given":"Dante","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Luna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Instituto de Ciencias Qu\u00edmicas Aplicadas, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Chile, Santiago 8910060, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8165-8669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco Javier","family":"Alcal\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Instituto de Ciencias Qu\u00edmicas Aplicadas, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Chile, Santiago 8910060, Chile"},{"name":"Departamento de Desertificaci\u00f3n y Geo-Ecolog\u00eda, Estaci\u00f3n Experimental de Zonas \u00c1ridas (EEZA\u2013CSIC), 04120 Almer\u00eda, Spain"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Rubilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Qu\u00edmica, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0296-0043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marysol","family":"Alvear","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Qu\u00edmicas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8756-8736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Encina-Montoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nucleus of Environmental Studies, Catholic University of Temuco, Temuco 4781312, Chile"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7433-5004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gladys","family":"Vidal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology Group (GIBA-UDEC), Environmental Science Faculty & EULA-CHILE Center, Universidad de Concepci\u00f3n, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"},{"name":"Water Research Center for Agriculture and Mining (CRHIAM), ANID Fondap Center, ANID\/FONDAP\/\/15130015, Victoria 1295, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Valois, M. (2011). UNECE\/FAO Forest Products Annual Market Review, 2011\u20132012, UN."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"195","article-title":"Developments in the Sourcing of Raw Materials for the Production of Paper","volume":"2","author":"Honnold","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Int. Commer. Econ."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"243","article-title":"The South American Pulp and Paper Industry: The Cases Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay","volume":"17","author":"Barbosa","year":"2012","journal-title":"World For."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"115","article-title":"Study of Utilization of Pulp and Paper Industry Wastes in Production of Concrete","volume":"4","author":"Seyyedalipour","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Eng. Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.30638\/eemj.2004.036","article-title":"Solid waste generation in kraft pulp mills","volume":"3","author":"Gavrilescu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(99)00048-6","article-title":"Composting of pulp and paper mill fly ash with wastewater treatment sludge","volume":"70","author":"Hackett","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2004.09.025","article-title":"Composting of de-inking sludge from the recycled paper manufacturing industry","volume":"96","author":"Gea","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2008.02.002","article-title":"Waste management from pulp and paper production in the European Union","volume":"29","author":"Monte","year":"2009","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"47","article-title":"Evaluation of Phytotoxicity for Compost from Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste and Paper & Pulp Mill Sludge","volume":"1","author":"Gopinathan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cherian, C., and Siddiqua, S. (2019). Pulp and Paper Mill Fly Ash: A Review. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11164394"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zawadzi\u0144ska, A., Salachna, P., Nowak, J.S., Kowalczyk, W., Piechocki, R., \u0141opusiewicz, \u0141., and Pietrak, A. (2022). Compost Based on Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge, Fruit-Vegetable Waste, Mushroom Spent Substrate and Rye Straw Improves Yield and Nutritional Value of Tomato. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12010013"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"16","article-title":"Characterization of dregs and grits from pulp Kraft mill: Study for its application to acid soils","volume":"60","author":"Zambrano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Afinidad"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.4067\/S0717-97072007000200011","article-title":"Acids soils\u2019 pH and nutrient improvement when amended with inorganic solid wastes from kraft mill","volume":"52","author":"Zambrano","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Chil. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900080","DOI":"10.1002\/clen.201900080","article-title":"Impact of paper mill waste on physicochemical properties of soil, crop yield, and chemical composition of plants","volume":"47","author":"Suski","year":"2019","journal-title":"CLEAN Soil Air Water"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bajpai, P. (2015). Management of Pulp and Paper Mill Waste, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11788-1"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2020.106502","article-title":"The environmental impact assessment in Chile: Overview, improvements, and comparisons","volume":"86","author":"Vela","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Impact Assess. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.1997.10701864","article-title":"Wood ash as an amendment in municipal sludge and yard waste composting process","volume":"5","author":"Campbell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Compost Sci. Util."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saeli, M., Senff, L., Tobaldi, D.M., La Scalia, G., Seabra, M.P., and Labrincha, J.A. (2019). Innovative Recycling of Lime Slaker Grits from Paper-Pulp Industry Reused as Aggregate in Ambient Cured Biomass Fly Ash-Based Geopolymers for Sustainable Construction Material. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11123481"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/0734242X07075037","article-title":"Using a second order polynomial model to determined the optimum dregs\/bark ratio for industrial-biosolid composting: The inicial conditioning stage","volume":"25","author":"Zambrano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2002.1004","article-title":"Kraft mill residues effects on Monterrey pine growth and soil microbial activity","volume":"31","author":"Jordan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1002\/jpln.200321183","article-title":"Effect of solid residues from the cellulose industry on plant growth","volume":"167","author":"Jordan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/0960-8524(92)90060-B","article-title":"Changes in microbial population numbers during the composting of pine bark","volume":"39","author":"Davis","year":"1992","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(02)00153-0","article-title":"The influence of temperature and moisture contents regimes on the aerobic microbial of a biosolid composting blend","volume":"86","author":"Liang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2005.04.022","article-title":"Use of 13C and 15N natural abundance techniques to characterize carbon and nitrogen dynamics in composting and in compost-amended soils","volume":"38","author":"Lynch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(03)00065-8","article-title":"Effects of pulp mill solids and three compost on early growth tomatoes","volume":"89","author":"Levy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0032-9592(99)00155-7","article-title":"The effect of microbial inoculation and pH on microbial community structure changes during composting","volume":"35","author":"Lei","year":"2000","journal-title":"Process Biochem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2004.07.008","article-title":"Enzymatic activity as a parameter for the characterization of the composting process","volume":"36","author":"Mondini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(00)00042-0","article-title":"Effect of the bulking agent on acid and alkaline phosphomonoesterase and \u00df-D-glucosidase activities during manure composting","volume":"75","author":"Vuorinen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.2003.01800.x","article-title":"Microbiological aspects of biowaste during composting in monitored compost bin","volume":"94","author":"Ryckeboer","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/s10086-002-0510-x","article-title":"Examination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibezofurans in process water of kraft pulp bleaching mill using chlorine dioxide from the aspect of environmental water quality","volume":"49","author":"Nakamata","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Wood Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Hough, G. (1985). Chemical Recovery in the Alkaline Pulping Process, Tappi Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2009.09.049","article-title":"Dreg effect on secondary sludge composting from Kraft pulp mill wastewater treatment plant","volume":"101","author":"Zambrano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Zar, J. (1999). Biostatistical Analysis, Prentice Hall. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.02.099","article-title":"Effect of aeration rate, C\/N ratio and moisture content on the stability and maturity of compost","volume":"112","author":"Guo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/S1385-8947(02)00252-8","article-title":"Modelling vinasse\/cotton waste ratio incubation for optimum composting","volume":"93","author":"Eugenio","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2005.02.013","article-title":"Thermophilic composting of food waste","volume":"97","author":"Chang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2004.12.020","article-title":"Carbon dioxide and ammonia emissions during composting of mixed paper, yard waste and food waste","volume":"26","author":"Komilis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10532-004-0628-1","article-title":"Process inhibition to organic acids in fed-batch composting of food waste-influence of starting culture","volume":"16","author":"Sundberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biodegradation"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.1997.10701865","article-title":"Composting pulp and paper mill sludge\u2014Effect of temperature and nutrient addition method","volume":"5","author":"Jackson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Compost Sci. Util."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0964-8305(01)00057-9","article-title":"Occurrence of iron-reducing compounds in biodelignified \u201cpalo podrido\u201d wood samples","volume":"47","author":"Ferraz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2003.12.012","article-title":"Maturity indices for composted dairy and pig manures","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Nannipieri, P., and Alef, K. (1998). Methods in Applied Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry, Harcourt Brace Company Publishers."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.2006.10702263","article-title":"Soil biological activity as influenced by green waste compost and cattle manure","volume":"14","author":"Saviozzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Compost Sci. Util."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"42","article-title":"Carbon dioxide emission and carbon sequestration potential in Alfi sol","volume":"25","author":"Syamsiyah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bulg. J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.2004.10702174","article-title":"Evolution of Biochemical Parameters during Composting of Urban Wastes","volume":"12","author":"Saviozzi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Compost. Sci. Util."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Normalizaci\u00f3n (2004). Norma Chilena N\u00b02880. Compost\u2014Clasificaci\u00f3n y Requisitos, Gobierno de Chile."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2003.10.007","article-title":"Determination of aeration rate and kinetics of composting some agricultural wastes","volume":"93","author":"Kulku","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2005.04.025","article-title":"Effects of feedstock, airflow rate and recirculation ratio on performance of composting systems with air recirculation","volume":"97","author":"Ekinci","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1002\/jpln.200421342","article-title":"Microbial biomass and activity in compost of different composition and age","volume":"167","author":"Gattinger","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.2003.10702117","article-title":"Maturity and stability evaluation of composted yard trimmings","volume":"2","author":"Brewer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Compost Sci. Util."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Haug, R. (1993). The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering, Lewis Publishers."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(03)00155-X","article-title":"Dynamics of water-soluble carbon substances and microbial populations during the composting of de-inking paper sludge","volume":"91","author":"Charest","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.63.3.1011-1018.1997","article-title":"Emission of Climate-Relevant Trace Gases and Succession of Microbial Communities during Open-Windrow Composting","volume":"63","author":"Hellmann","year":"1997","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"54","article-title":"Evaluating toxicity of immature compost","volume":"22","author":"Zucconi","year":"1981","journal-title":"Biocycle"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.02.040","article-title":"Additives aided composting of green waste: Effects on organic matter degradation, compost maturity, and quality of the finished compost","volume":"114","author":"Gabhane","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2007.11.030","article-title":"Microbial dynamics and enzyme activities during rapid composting of municipal solid waste\u2014A compost maturity analysis perspective","volume":"99","author":"Raut","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00029281","article-title":"Application of glucose at low concentrations to grass swards in waste-derived compost can significantly increase long-term yields","volume":"184","author":"Keeling","year":"1996","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1007\/s00374-005-0049-2","article-title":"Soil microbial biomass activation by trace amounts of readily available substrate","volume":"42","author":"Mondini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Fertil. Soils"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Bertoldi, M., Sequi, P., Lemmes, B., and Papi, T. (1996). The Science of Composting, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-1569-5"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.115439","article-title":"Evaluating land application of pulp and paper mill sludge: A review","volume":"317","author":"Turner","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinto-Morales, F., Retamal-Salgado, J., Lop\u00e9z, M.D., Zapata, N., Vergara-Retamales, R., and Pinto-Poblete, A. (2022). The Use of Compost Increases Bioactive Compounds and Fruit Yield in Calafate Grown in the Central South of Chile. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12010098"}],"container-title":["Agronomy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4395\/13\/4\/1099\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:14:15Z","timestamp":1760123655000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4395\/13\/4\/1099"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["agronomy13041099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/agronomy13041099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4395"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-4395"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]]}}}