{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T02:09:40Z","timestamp":1772676580129,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]],"date-time":"2025-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755907200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]},{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]},{"name":"National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone Construction Key Project of Ordos City","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone Construction Key Project of Ordos City","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone Construction Key Project of Ordos City","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone Construction Key Project of Ordos City","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]},{"name":"the China Scholarship Council","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"the China Scholarship Council","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"the China Scholarship Council","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"the China Scholarship Council","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]},{"name":"Coimbra Agriculture School (ESAC)","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"Coimbra Agriculture School (ESAC)","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"Coimbra Agriculture School (ESAC)","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"Coimbra Agriculture School (ESAC)","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]},{"name":"the Applied Research Institute of the Polytechnic University of Coimbra (IPC)","award":["U2443210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2443210"]}]},{"name":"the Applied Research Institute of the Polytechnic University of Coimbra (IPC)","award":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFD1900602\u201306"]}]},{"name":"the Applied Research Institute of the Polytechnic University of Coimbra (IPC)","award":["No. ZD20232301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. ZD20232301"]}]},{"name":"the Applied Research Institute of the Polytechnic University of Coimbra (IPC)","award":["CSC, No. 202308150179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CSC, No. 202308150179"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Agronomy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The management of groundwater depth (GWD) in alluvial soils under irrigation in arid climates is critical for soil and water conservation, given its influence on salt dynamics and water availability for crops. GWD is influenced by the interaction of irrigation water supply and drainage system design and operation. Controlling GWD is a significant issue in the Hetao Irrigation District due to continuous irrigation, arid climate, and high risks of soil salinization, which concerns farmers and water management authorities. To address this issue, a study was conducted based on open-air laboratory experimentation to rigorously assess the effects of GWD on soil salt dynamics and capillary rise contribution to maize cultivation under level basin irrigation. Data collected served as the basis for parameterizing and calibrating the HYDRUS-1D model, facilitating simulation of soil water and salt dynamics to enhance understanding of GWD effects ranging from 1.25 m to 2.25 m. It was concluded that during calibration and validation, the model demonstrated strong performance; SWC simulations achieved R2 &gt; 0.69, RMSE &lt; 0.03 cm3 cm\u22123, and NSE approaching 1; and EC simulations yielded R2 \u2265 0.74 with RMSE &lt; 0.22 S cm\u22121. Additionally, the simulated bottom boundary moisture flux closely matched the measured values. The most favorable GWD range should be between 1.75 m and 2.0 m, minimizing the negative impacts of irrigation-induced soil salinity while maximizing water use efficiency and crop productivity. A higher GWD causes crop water stress, while a lower value results in a greater risk of soil salinity. This study anticipates future field application in Hetao to assess drainage system effectiveness and variability in salinity and productivity effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15092025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T00:09:32Z","timestamp":1756080572000},"page":"2025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effects of Groundwater Depth on Soil Water and Salinity Dynamics in the Hetao Irrigation District: Insights from Laboratory Experiments and HYDRUS-1D Simulations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Zhuangzhuang","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"}]},{"given":"Liping","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ordos Water Conservancy Development Center, Ordos Municipal Water Conservancy Bureau, Ordos 017000, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2584-6833","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingfeng","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8646-7880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Manuel","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Agriculture School, CERNAS\u2014Research Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Bencanta, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Haibin","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China"}]},{"given":"Yuxin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot 010059, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8478-1171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weiying","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"70","article-title":"Analysis and assessment of water-saving project of Hetao Irrigation District in Inner Mongolia","volume":"46","author":"Qu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nongye Jixie Xuebao\/Trans. 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