{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T21:03:37Z","timestamp":1770843817864,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Animal and food sources are seen as a potential transmission pathway of multi-drug resistance (MDR) micro-organisms to humans. Escherichia. coli is frequently used as an indicator of fecal contamination in the food industry and known as a reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). Microbial contamination as a major outcome for the poultry and egg industry and is a serious public health problem. In the present study we performed the quantification of \u03b2-glucoronidase positive E. coli in 60 fecal samples of breeding and laying hens collected in Portugal in 2019. Phylogenetic and pathotypic characterization, antimicrobial susceptibility, and detection of resistant extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase (ESBL) genes were assessed. The phylogenetic and pathogenic characterization and detection of ESBL genes were assessed by real-time PCR and antimicrobial susceptibility was evaluated using the disk diffusion method. Overall, E. coli quantification was 6.03 log CFU\/g in breeding hens and 6.02 log CFU\/g in laying hens. The most frequent phylogroups were B1. None of the isolates was classified as diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC). In total, 57% of the isolates showed MDR and 3.8% were positive for ESBL. Our study highlights that consumers may be exposed to MDR E. coli, presenting a major hazard to food safety and a risk to public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12010020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T03:55:21Z","timestamp":1671767721000},"page":"20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Evaluation of Antimicrobial Resistance of Different Phylogroups of Escherichia coli Isolates from Feces of Breeding and Laying Hens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Sandra","family":"Pais","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV, I.P.), Vair\u00e3o, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre of Biological Engineering, Minho University (CEB), 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Mariana","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV, I.P.), Vair\u00e3o, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal"},{"name":"Escola Superior Agr\u00e1ria de Ponte de Lima, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Ref\u00f3ios, 4990-706 Ponte de Lima, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1899-8641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Rita","family":"Barata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV, I.P.), Vair\u00e3o, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal"},{"name":"Escola de Ci\u00eancias da Vida e do Ambiente, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9265-0630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L\u00edgia","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Biological Engineering, Minho University (CEB), 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"},{"name":"LABBELS\u2014Associate Laboratory, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2895-5648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isabel M.","family":"Afonso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CISAS\u2014Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e Desenvolvimento em Sistemas Agroalimentares e Sustentabilidade-Escola Superior Agr\u00e1ria, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun\u2019\u00c1lvares, n.\u00ba 34, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Gon\u00e7alo","family":"Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV, I.P.), Vair\u00e3o, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for Study in Animal Science (CECA-ICETA), Universidade do Porto, 4050-083 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2009.08.029","article-title":"Red meat consumption: An overview of the risks and benefits","volume":"84","author":"McAfee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4674235","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/4674235","article-title":"Review on Major Food-Borne Zoonotic Bacterial Pathogens","volume":"2020","author":"Abebe","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Trop Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2006.01.009","article-title":"Foodborne transmission of infectious intestinal disease in England and Wales, 1992\u20132003","volume":"18","author":"Hughes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19779","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75914-9","article-title":"Virulence-determinants and antibiotic-resistance genes of MDR-E. coli isolated from secondary infections following FMD-outbreak in cattle","volume":"10","author":"Algammal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2826","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02826","article-title":"Diverse fluoroquinolone resistance plasmids from retail meat E. coli in the United States","volume":"10","author":"Tyson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2017.08.001","article-title":"Transferability of antimicrobial resistance from multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from cattle in the USA to E. coli and Salmonella Newport recipients","volume":"11","author":"Poole","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1805.111153","article-title":"Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in Escherichia coli from humans and food animals, United States, 1950\u20132002","volume":"18","author":"Tadesse","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2010.80","article-title":"Survival of Escherichia coli in the environment: Fundamental and public health aspects","volume":"5","author":"Semenov","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"2","article-title":"Incidence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolated from beef (meat muscle, liver and kidney) samples in Wa Abattoir, Ghana","volume":"6","author":"Adzitey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogent. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, P., and Adhikari, A. (2022). Novel approaches to environmental monitoring and control of Listeria monocytogenes in food production facilities. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11121760"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.16.6.701","article-title":"Incidence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli associated with frozen chicken carcasses and characterization of conjugative R plasmids derived from such strains","volume":"16","author":"Caudry","year":"1979","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"365","article-title":"Transmissible drug resistance in Escherichia coli isolated from poultry and their carcasses in Iran","volume":"70","author":"Nazer","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cornell Vet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1983.tb05876.x","article-title":"Antibiotic resistant coliform bacilli, isolated from freshly slaughtered poultry and from chilled poultry at retail outlets","volume":"60","author":"Bensink","year":"1983","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268800030910","article-title":"Direct transmission of Escherichia coli from poultry to humans","volume":"103","author":"Ojeniyi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.49.4.1016-1018.1985","article-title":"IncH plasmids in Escherichia coli strains isolated from broiler chicken carcasses","volume":"49","author":"Lafont","year":"1985","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00172549","article-title":"Occurrence of aminoglycoside phosphotransferase subclass I and II structural genes among Enterobacteriaceae spp. Isolated from meat samples","volume":"33","author":"Jayaratne","year":"1990","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1605(90)90029-5","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance among coliform bacteria isolated from carcasses of commercially slaughtered chickens","volume":"11","author":"Turtura","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.0521955","article-title":"Drug resistance and R factors among enterobacteria isolated from eggs","volume":"52","author":"Lakhotia","year":"1973","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/47.6.763","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance of faecal Escherichia coli in poultry, poultry farmers and poultry slaughterers","volume":"47","author":"London","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-62.6.644","article-title":"Bacterial contamination of ready-to-eat foods and fresh products in retail shops and food factories","volume":"62","author":"Kaneko","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-12-213","article-title":"Frequency of Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes in Five Commercial Brands of Chicken Eggs Using a Combined Method of Enrichment and Nested-PCR","volume":"76","author":"Valdovinos","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gharbi, M., B\u00e9jaoui, A., Ben Hamda, C., Alaya, N., Hamrouni, S., Bessoussa, G., Ghram, A., and Maaroufi, A. (2022). Campylobacter spp. In Eggs and Laying Hens in the North-East of Tunisia: High Prevalence and Multidrug-Resistance Phenotypes. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci9030108"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2528","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.2528-2533","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli and Salmonella in raw retail table eggs in Lusaka, Zambia","volume":"13","author":"Kapena","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2018.03.002","article-title":"Use of antibiotics in broiler production: Global impacts and alternatives","volume":"4","author":"Mehdi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2012-02603","article-title":"Influence of penicillin on microbial diversity of the cecal microbiota in broiler chickens","volume":"92","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S78","DOI":"10.1086\/340244","article-title":"Emergence, spread, and environmental effect of antimicrobial resistance: How use of an antimicrobial anywhere can increase resistance to any antimicrobial anywhere else","volume":"34","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolny-Ko\u0142adka, K., and Zdaniewicz, M. (2021). Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli Isolated from Processing of Brewery Waste with the Addition of Bulking Agents. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su131810174"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis929","article-title":"Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from retail chicken meat and humans: Comparison of strains, plasmids, resistance genes, and virulence factors","volume":"56","author":"Kluytmans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zachary, R., Stromberg, Z.R., Johnson, J.R., Fairbrother, J.M., Kilbourne, J., Van Goor, A., Curtiss, R., and Mellata, M. (2017). Evaluation of Escherichia coli isolates from healthy chickens to determine their potential risk to poultry and human health. PloS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0180599"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.3923\/ijps.2009.404.408","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance in Poultry","volume":"8","author":"Apata","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1079\/095442200108729106","article-title":"Antibiotic use in animal feed and its impact on human healt","volume":"13","author":"Barton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bond, V., and Jewell, J. (2014). The Impacts of Antibiotic Use in Animals on Human Health and Animal Welfare, Business Benchmark on Farm Animal Welfare. Available online: https:\/\/www.bbfaw.com\/media\/1070\/briefing-17-impacts-of-antibiotic-use-in-animals-on-human-health-and-animal-welfare.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2022, November 23). DGAV. Available online: https:\/\/www.dgav.pt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/ESVAC-RELATORIO-2017.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2298","article-title":"The population genetics of commensal Escherichia coli","volume":"8","author":"Tenaillon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4555","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.66.10.4555-4558.2000","article-title":"Rapid and simple determination of the Escherichia coli phylogenetic group","volume":"66","author":"Clermont","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3108","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01468-12","article-title":"Improved multiplex PCR strategy for rapid assignment of the four major Escherichia coli phylogenetic groups","volume":"50","author":"Doumith","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.20930.1","article-title":"Phylogenetic groups and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of uropathogenic Escherichia coli clinical isolates from patients at Mulago National Referral Hospital, Kampala, Uganda","volume":"8","author":"Katongole","year":"2019","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12019","article-title":"The Clermont Escherichia coli phylotyping method revisited: Improvement of specificity and detection of new phylogroups","volume":"5","author":"Clermont","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.000063","article-title":"Guide to the various phylogenetic classification schemes for Escherichia coli and the correspondence among schemes","volume":"161","author":"Clermont","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2019.11.019","article-title":"Association of phylogenetic distribution and presence of integrons with multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli clinical isolates from children with diarrhoea","volume":"13","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.15547\/bjvm.952","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of Escherichia coli isolates from healthy and diarrhoeic calves in Mashhad, Iran","volume":"20","author":"Barzan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bulg. J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2011.00797.x","article-title":"Escherichia coli from animal reservoirs as a potential source of human extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"62","author":"Garenaux","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2501","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkr349","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates from a regional cohort of elderly patients highlights the prevalence of ST131 strains with increased antimicrobial resistance in both community and hospital care settings","volume":"66","author":"Croxall","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro818","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli","volume":"2","author":"Kaper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.5.2113-2125.2003","article-title":"Rapid identification of Escherichia coli pathotypes by virulence gene detection with DNA microarray","volume":"41","author":"Bekal","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11950","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111111950","article-title":"Occurrence of Virulence Genes Associated with Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Isolated from Raw Cow\u2019s Milk from Two Commercial Dairy Farms in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa","volume":"11","author":"Caine","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2022.102007","article-title":"Relationship between phylogenetic groups of Escherichia coli and Pathogenicity among Isolates from chickens with Colibacillosis and healthy chickens","volume":"101","author":"Murase","year":"2022","journal-title":"Poult Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2011.04973.x","article-title":"Development of a duplex real-time PCR for differentiation between E. coli and Shigella spp.","volume":"110","author":"Pavlovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.10702","article-title":"Characterization of uropathogenic ESBL-producing Escherichia coli isolated from hospitalized patients in western Algeria","volume":"13","author":"Zenati","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12724","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli in husbandry animals: The African perspective","volume":"64","author":"Alonso","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkl337","article-title":"Detection and characterization of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Salmonella enterica strains of healthy food animals in Spain","volume":"58","author":"Moreno","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1637\/10804-022414-Reg.1","article-title":"First description of an extended-spectrum cephalosporin- and fluoroquinolone- resistant avian pathogenic Escherichia coli clone in Algeria","volume":"59","author":"Meguenni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2016.04.006","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamase- and plasmid AmpC-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from broilers in B\u00e9ja\u00efa, Algeria","volume":"6","author":"Belmahdi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.05.001","article-title":"High prevalence of extended-spectrum and plasmidic AmpC beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from poultry in Tunisia","volume":"231","author":"Maamar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.07.005","article-title":"High prevalence of ESBLs in retail chicken meat despite reduced use of antimicrobials in chicken production, France","volume":"257","author":"Casella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (2022, October 10). Breakpoint Tables for Interpretation of MICs and Zone Diameters. Available online: http:\/\/www.eucast.org."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) (2022). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. [32nd ed.]. CLSI Supplement M100."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3107","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.14713","article-title":"Characterization and rapid identification of phy- logroup G in Escherichia coli, a lineage with high virulence and antibiotic resistance potential","volume":"21","author":"Clermont","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1086\/514217","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis of Escherichia coli strains causing neonatal meningitis suggests horizontal gene transfer from a predominant pool of highly virulent B2 group strains","volume":"177","author":"Bingen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.2.546-553.1999","article-title":"The link between phylogeny and virulence in Escherichia coli extraintestinal infection","volume":"67","author":"Picard","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.07.010","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance, phylogenetic grouping and virulence potential of Escherichia coli isolated from the faeces of intensively farmed and free range poultry","volume":"154","author":"Obeng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.08.003","article-title":"High prevalence of blaCTX-M-14 among genetically diverse Escherichia coli recovered from retail raw chicken meat portions in Japan, Int","volume":"284","author":"Hayashi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02364-16","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02364-16","article-title":"Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase- and plasmid-encoded cephamycinase-producing Enterobacteria in the broiler hatchery as a potential mode of pseudo-vertical transmission","volume":"83","author":"Projahn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2019.0397","article-title":"Phylogenetic Characterization and Multilocus Sequence Typing of Extended-Spectrum Beta Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli from Food-Producing Animals, Beef, and Humans in Southwest Nigeria","volume":"27","author":"Adefioye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"fux053","article-title":"Environmental factors influencing the development and spread of antibiotic resistance","volume":"42","author":"Kristiansson","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, T., Rafiq, K., Islam, Z., Chowdhury, S., Islam, P., Haque, Z., Samad, M.A., Sani, A.A., Ferdous, M.R.A., and Islam, R. (2022). A survey on knowledge, attitude, and practices of large-animal farmers towards antimicrobial use, resistance, and residues in Mymensingh division of Bangladesh. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040442"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1108\/NFS-07-2016-0085","article-title":"Effect of commercial probiotic (Protexin\u00ae) on growth, survival and microbial quality of shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)","volume":"47","author":"Javadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hailu, W., Helmy, Y.A., Carney-Knisely, G., Kauffman, M., Fraga, D., and Rajashekara, G. (2021). Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Foodborne Pathogens Isolated from Dairy Cattle and Poultry Manure Amended Farms in Northeastern Ohio, the United States. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10121450"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langata, L.M., Maingi, J.M., Musonye, H.A., Kiiru, J., and Nyamache, A.K. (2019). Antimicrobial resistance genes in Salmonella and Escherichia coli isolates from chicken droppings in Nairobi, Kenya. BMC Res. Notes, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4068-8"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269849","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/1269849","article-title":"Genetic background of antimicrobial resistance in multiantimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli isolates from feces of healthy broiler chickens in Tunisia","volume":"2021","author":"Abbassi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2011). Scientific Opinion on the public health risks of bacterial strains producing extended-spectrum \u03b2-lactamases and\/or AmpC \u03b2-lactamases in food and food-producing animals. EFSA J., 9, 2322.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2011.2322"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2020.11.064","article-title":"Longitudinal monitoring of multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli on broiler chicken fattening farms in Shandong, China","volume":"100","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koju, P., Shrestha, R., Shrestha, A., Tamrakar, S., Rai, A., Shrestha, P., Madhup, S.K., Katuwal, N., Shrestha, A., and Shrestha, A. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance in E. coli isolated from chicken cecum samples and factors contributing to antimicrobial resistance in Nepal. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7090249"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/00071668.2010.482462","article-title":"Factors influencing bacterial eggshell contamination in conventional cages, furnished cages and free-range systems for laying hens under commercial conditions","volume":"51","author":"Michel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1168-3","article-title":"Assessment of the presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in eggshells and ready-to-eat products","volume":"30","author":"Egea","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkn179","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance integrons and extended-spectrum {beta}-lactamases among Enterobacteriaceae isolates recovered from chickens and swine in Portugal","volume":"62","author":"Machado","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clemente, L., Le\u00e3o, C., Moura, L., Albuquerque, T., and Amaro, A. (2021). Prevalence and characterization of ESBL\/AmpC producing Escherichia coli from fresh meat in Portugal. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10111333"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00228","article-title":"Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli in Drinking Water Samples from a Forcibly Displaced, Densely Populated Community Setting in Bangladesh","volume":"8","author":"Mahmud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2001). Microbiology of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs\u2014Horizontal Method for the Enumeration of \u03b2-glucoronidase-positive Escherichia coli- Part 2: Colony\u2014Count Technique at 44 \u00b0C Using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl \u03b2-D-glucuronide (Standard No. ISO 16649-2)."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.33.3.701-705.1995","article-title":"Development of PCR for screening of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli","volume":"33","author":"Schmidt","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2006.00580.x","article-title":"Single multiplex assay to identify simultaneously enteropathogenic, enteroaggregative, enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains in Brazilian children","volume":"267","author":"Aranda","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2012). Microbiology of Food and Animal Feed\u2014Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-Based Method for the Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens\u2014Horizontal Method for the Detection of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and the Determination of O157, O111, O26, O103 and O145 Serogroups (Standard No. ISO\/TS 13136)."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x","article-title":"Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: An international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance","volume":"18","author":"Magiorakos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1097(97)00196-1","article-title":"Substitution of alanine for aspartate at position 179 in the SHV-6 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase","volume":"152","author":"Arlet","year":"1997","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2007.00722.x","article-title":"Multiplex PCR amplification assay for the detection of blaSHV, blaTEM and blaCTX-M genes in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"115","author":"Monstein","year":"2007","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkp498","article-title":"Development of a set of multiplex PCR assays for the detection of genes encoding important beta-lactamases in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"65","author":"Dallenne","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, R., Castro, J., Silva, S., Oliveira, H., Saavedra, M.J., Azevedo, N.F., and Almeida, C. (2022). Exploring the Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Clinical Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates in Portugal. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11111613"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"IBM (2015). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows 2015, IBM Corperation."}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/1\/20\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:48:56Z","timestamp":1760147336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/12\/1\/20"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics12010020"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics12010020","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]]}}}