{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T07:49:23Z","timestamp":1776325763678,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan (LPDP) Scholarship","award":["201911220315663"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201911220315663"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Antibiotics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The presence of antibiotic residues (ARs) in animal products such as milk can be an important driver of antimicrobial resistance in commensal and pathogenic bacteria. Previous studies on ARs in Nepal have demonstrated the presence of ARs in milk samples but without further characterization of the samples for risk factor analysis. This study aimed to quantify the prevalence and risk factors for the presence of ARs in 140 peri-urban dairy farms in Kathmandu, Nepal, included in a cross-sectional survey in 2019 to estimate farm-level AR prevalence. Results: Our results reveal the presence of ARs of sulfamethazine (61%), sulfamethoxazole (53%), ciprofloxacin (46%), and enrofloxacin (42%). Furthermore, of those samples positive for sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, and ciprofloxacin, 81%, 42%, and 42%, respectively, exceeded the maximum residue limit (MRL). While samples taken from farms where staff administered antibiotics were less likely to have single drug residues and multidrug residues (two, three, and four drugs), farms with more workers were more likely to have single residues. Moreover, samples from farms with a higher number of calves and milking cows were more likely to contain single and multiple residues exceeding the MRL, while milk from farms with higher numbers of dry cows and farmers reported by a visiting chemist were less likely to have multidrug residues exceeding the MRL. Methods: High-performance liquid chromatography was conducted on bulk milk samples from farms for an AR analysis, revealing positive results. Additionally, a structured questionnaire and direct farmer interviews were used to collect data on farm biosecurity and farming practices, animal health and hygiene, antibiotic usage (AMU), and attitudes and practices towards antibiotic stewardship. Conclusions: Ultimately, this study provides evidence on the role of modifiable ARs risk factors in the peri-urban milk industry of Kathmandu, which can serve as a foundation for developing improved antimicrobial stewardship guidelines and designing intervention measures to reduce the public health risk posed by ARs in milk sold in Kathmandu, Nepal.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14010098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T12:27:54Z","timestamp":1737030474000},"page":"98","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with the Presence of Antibiotic Residues in Milk from Peri-Urban Dairy Cattle Farms in Kathmandu, Nepal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1792-8756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erda E. Rame","family":"Rame Hau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia"}]},{"given":"Minu","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Centre (NZFHRC), Kathmandu, Nepal"}]},{"given":"Bal K. Sharma","family":"Khanal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Kathmandu, Nepal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6305-2201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter D.","family":"Sly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s Health and Environment Program, Children Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7113-2578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deirdre","family":"Mikkelsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture and Food Sustainability, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7131-3301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9157-8470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo J. Soares","family":"Soares Magalh\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia"},{"name":"Children\u2019s Health and Environment Program, Children Health Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bsheal.2020.09.004","article-title":"Use of antimicrobials in food animals and impact of transmission of antimicrobial resistance on humans","volume":"3","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosaf. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","article-title":"Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals","volume":"112","author":"Brower","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manyi-Loh, C., Mamphweli, S., Meyer, E., and Okoh, A. (2018). Antibiotic Use in Agriculture and Its Consequential Resistance in Environmental Sources: Potential Public Health Implications. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23040795"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2019.f350","article-title":"Antibiotic residues in milk: Past, present, and future","volume":"6","author":"Sachi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2022.108928","article-title":"Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in yogurt and milk in central-eastern China and the risk of exposure in milk consumers","volume":"137","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"FDA (2015). Multicriteria-Based Ranking Model for Risk Management of Animal Drug Residues in Milk and Milk Products, FDA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2019.01.033","article-title":"Importance of antibiotic residues in animal food","volume":"125","author":"Basaran","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Veterinary Drug Residues in Food-animal Products: Its Risk Factors and Potential Effects on Public Health","volume":"7","author":"Tufa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"CAC (2011). FAO and WHO: Maximum Residue Limits for Veterinary Drugs in Foods. Updated as at the 34th Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, Codex Alimentarius Commission."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"The European Commission (2011). Council Regulation No. 37\/2010 of 22 December 2009 on Pharmacologically Active Substances and Their Classification Regarding Maximum Residue Limits in Foodstuffs of Animal Origin, The European Commission."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"MOA (2002). No.235 Bulletin of the Ministry of Agriculture of the People\u2019s Republic of China, MOA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chnaes.2018.10.004","article-title":"Antibiotic residues in food animals: Public health concern","volume":"39","author":"Menkem","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1080\/10942912.2016.1212874","article-title":"Antimicrobial drug residues in poultry products and implications on public health: A review","volume":"20","author":"Mund","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"CASA (2020). Dairy Sector Strategy\u2014Nepal. Commercial Agriculture for Smallholders and Agribusiness, CASA."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1154","article-title":"A Study on Growth and Performance of Dairy Sector in Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Shingh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Agric. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"101134","article-title":"Insight into policy provisions and their gaps for dairy sector development in Nepal","volume":"16","author":"Dhungana","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Nepal, G. (2012). Milk Marketing Strategies Study, Final Report; National Dairy Development Board."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.3126\/jfstn.v8i0.11751","article-title":"Sulfonamides and Penicillin Residue in Market Milk","volume":"8","author":"Thapaliya","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/03601234.2017.1375832","article-title":"Screening of antibiotic residues in fresh milk of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"53","author":"Khanal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"195","article-title":"Determination of Antibiotics Residues in Milk Samples Collected in the Different Sites of Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"39","author":"Bhusal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian J. Dairy Food Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3126\/ijasbt.v8i3.31314","article-title":"Monitoring of Antibiotic Residues in Chicken Meat, Cow and Buffalo Milk Samples in Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Gompo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geta, K., and Kibret, M. (2021). Knowledge, attitudes and practices of animal farm owners\/workers on antibiotic use and resistance in Amhara region, north western Ethiopia. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00617-8"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"662","article-title":"The public health issue of antibiotic residues in food and feed: Causes, consequences, and potential solutions","volume":"15","author":"Davares","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Upadhyaya, N., Karki, S., Rana, S., Elsohaby, I., Tiwari, R., Oli, M., and Paudel, S. (2023). Trend of Antimicrobial Use in Food-Producing Animals from 2018 to 2020 in Nepal. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13081377"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0409","article-title":"Antibiotic Residues in Milk from Three Popular Kenyan Milk Vending Machines","volume":"98","author":"Kosgey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, K., Mugoh, M., Call, D.R., and Omulo, S. (2020). Antibiotic residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria detected in milk marketed for human consumption in Kibera, Nairobi. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0233413"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2019.1970-1974","article-title":"Survey on the presence of antibiotic residues in raw milk samples from six sites of the dairy pool of Niamey, Niger","volume":"12","author":"Madougou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1080\/02652030500499359","article-title":"Analysis of sulphonamide residues in edible animal products: A review","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Food Addit. Contam."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chattopadhyay, M.K. (2014). Use of antibiotics as feed additives: A burning question. Front. Media SA, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00334"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"223","article-title":"Efficacy of a feed-additive antibacterial combination for improving feedlot cattle performance and health","volume":"36","author":"Gallo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-7158.1996.tb06017.x","article-title":"Mechanism for synergism between sulphonamides and trimethoprim clarified","volume":"48","author":"Richards","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2008.07.021","article-title":"Analysis of sulfonamide and quinolone antibiotic residues in Korean milk using microbial assays and high-performance liquid chromatography","volume":"113","author":"Chung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.08.012","article-title":"Occurrence of tetracyclines, sulfonamides, sulfamethazine and quinolones in pasteurized milk and UHT milk in China\u2019s market","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, M.T., Rafiq, K., Islam, M.Z., Chowdhury, S., Islam, P., Haque, Z., Samad, M.A., Sani, A.A., Ferdous, M.R.A., and Islam, M.R. (2022). A Survey on Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices of Large-Animal Farmers towards Antimicrobial Use, Resistance, and Residues in Mymensingh Division of Bangladesh. Antibiotics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11040442"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gebeyehu, D.T., Bekele, D., Mulate, B., Gugsa, G., and Tintagu, T. (2021). Knowledge, attitude and practice of animal producers towards antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in Oromia zone, north eastern Ethiopia. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251596"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40545-017-0108-8","article-title":"Exploring the status of retail private drug shops in Bangladesh and action points for developing an accredited drug shop model: A facility based cross-sectional study","volume":"10","author":"Ahmed","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"f4214","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.f4214","article-title":"Does adding routine antibiotics to animal feed pose a serious risk to human health?","volume":"347","author":"Wallinga","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1215093","article-title":"The future of antibiotics and resistance","volume":"368","author":"Spellberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.5455\/vetworld.2008.375-377","article-title":"Antibiotic Residues\u2014A Global Health Hazard","volume":"1","author":"Nisha","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2021-20951","article-title":"Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of dairy farmers regarding antibiotic use: Lessons from a developing country","volume":"105","author":"Dankar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gigu\u00e8re, S., Prescott, J.F., and Dowling, P.M. (2013). Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118675014"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-409X(01)00160-0","article-title":"Bovine mastitis and intramammary drug delivery: Review and perspectives","volume":"50","author":"Gruet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3765","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03061-15","article-title":"Occurrence and Spread of Quinolone-Resistant Escherichia coli on Dairy Farms","volume":"82","author":"Duse","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham-Duc, P., Cook, M.A., Cong-Hong, H., Nguyen-Thuy, H., Padungtod, P., Nguyen-Thi, H., and Dang-Xuan, S. (2019). Knowledge, attitudes and practices of livestock and aquaculture producers regarding antimicrobial use and resistance in Vietnam. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0223115"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2016.12.014","article-title":"Detection of ciprofloxacin residues in cow milk: A novel and rapid optical \u03b2-galactosidase-based screening assay","volume":"136","author":"Kalunke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.102667","article-title":"Efficacy of enrofloxacin for the treatment of acute clinical mastitis caused by Escherichia coli in dairy cows","volume":"176","author":"Persson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine, 5th Revision; World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2017). WHO Guidelines on Use of Medically Important Antimicrobials in Food-Producing Animals: Web Annex A: Evidence Base, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.3126\/nvj.v38i1.55814","article-title":"Antibiotic Residue in Raw Milk Collected from Dairy Farms and Markets in Nepal","volume":"38","author":"Pokharel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nepal. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlz066","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlz066","article-title":"Combatting antimicrobial resistance in Nepal: The need for precision surveillance programmes and multi-sectoral partnership","volume":"1","author":"Acharya","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAC-Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharya, K.P., and Wilson, R.T. (2019). Antimicrobial Resistance in Nepal. Front. Med., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2019.00105"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caudell, M.A., Dorado-Garcia, A., Eckford, S., Creese, C., Byarugaba, D.K., Afakye, K., Chansa-Kabali, T., Fasina, F.O., Kabali, E., and Kiambi, S. (2020). Towards a bottom-up understanding of antimicrobial use and resistance on the farm: A knowledge, attitudes, and practices survey across livestock systems in five African countries. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220274"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alhaji, N.B., Aliyu, M.B., Ghali-Mohammed, I., and Odetokun, I.A. (2019). Survey on antimicrobial usage in local dairy cows in North-central Nigeria: Drivers for misuse and public health threats. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224949"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Malisch, R., Bourgeois, B., and Lippold, R. (1994). Multiresidue analysis of selected chemotherapeutics and antiparasitics. Determination of Sulphonamides and their N4-metabolites, chloramphenicol and nicarbazin. Documentation for the Codex Committee Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Food, Ad Hoc Working Group, Methods of Analysis and Sampling, Eighth Session."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"ESRI (2011). Redlands. ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10, Environmental Systems Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"StataCorp (2021). Stata Statistical Software: Release 17, StataCorp LLC."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Microsoft (2022). Microsoft Excel, 2022, Microsoft."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14050473","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000}}],"container-title":["Antibiotics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/1\/98\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]],"date-time":"2025-08-03T14:56:46Z","timestamp":1754233006000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6382\/14\/1\/98"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["antibiotics14010098"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antibiotics14010098","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/antibiotics14050473","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2079-6382"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6382","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]}}}