{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T14:08:59Z","timestamp":1776866939045,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]],"date-time":"2021-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/MEC-AND\/28691\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/MEC-AND\/28691\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IFCT2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IFCT2015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/00215\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00215\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/00215\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00215\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LA\/P\/0064\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0064\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Portuguese Society of Reproductive Medicine","award":["Pr\u00e9mio Laborat\u00f3rio 2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Pr\u00e9mio Laborat\u00f3rio 2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Antioxidants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Male reproductive tissues are strongly susceptible to several environmental and lifestyle stressors. In general, male reproductive health is highly sensitive to oxidative stress, which results in reversible and\/or irreversible changes in testosterone-producing cells, spermatogenesis, and sperm quality. Chromium compounds are widely used in the +3 and +6 valence states, as food supplements, and in the industrial field, respectively. Chromium (III) compounds, i.e., Cr(III)-tris-picolinate, [Cr(pic)3], known as chromium picolinate, are used as nutritional supplements for the control of diabetes, body weight, and muscular growth. However, previous studies showed that animal models exposed to chromium picolinate experienced degenerative changes in spermatogenesis. Contradictory results are documented in the literature and deserve discussion. Furthermore, the long-term effects of chromium picolinate on the antioxidant system of treated subjects have not been properly studied. Comprehensive studies on the role of this compound will help to establish the safe and useful use of chromium supplementation. On the other hand, chromium (VI) compounds are widely used in several industries, despite being well-known environmental pollutants (i.e., welding fumes). Chromium (VI) is known for its deleterious effects on male reproductive health as toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic. Previous studies have demonstrated severe lesions to mouse spermatogenesis after exposure to chromium (VI). However, workers worldwide are still exposed to hexavalent chromium, particularly in electronics and military industries. Data from the literature pinpoints mechanisms of oxidative stress induced by chromium compounds in somatic and germ cells that lead to apoptosis, thus underlining the impairment of fertility potential. In this review, we analyze the benefits and risks of chromium compounds on male fertility, as well as the mechanisms underlying (in)fertility outcomes. Although supplements with antioxidant properties may maximize male fertility, adverse effects need to be investigated and discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10091365","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]],"date-time":"2021-08-27T09:53:23Z","timestamp":1630058003000},"page":"1365","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Impact of Environmental and Lifestyle Use of Chromium on Male Fertility: Focus on Antioxidant Activity and Oxidative Stress"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Sara C.","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, Department of Anatomy, Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4989-5699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro F.","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qu\u00edmica Org\u00e2nica, Produtos Naturais e Agroalimentares (QOPNA), Laborat\u00f3rio Associado para a Qu\u00edmica Verde (LAQV), Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0707-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00f3nia Rodrigues","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, NSW 2305, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6703-7869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria de Lourdes","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CICECO\u2014Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7635-783X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco G.","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, Department of Anatomy, Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2015.01.002","article-title":"Oxidative stress: A concept in redox biology and medicine","volume":"4","author":"Sies","year":"2015","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2012.01.008","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and redox regulation in cellular signaling","volume":"24","author":"Ray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2003.049478","article-title":"Mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species","volume":"552","author":"Turrens","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2003.06.026","article-title":"Novel association between sperm reactive oxygen species production, sperm morphological defects, and the sperm deformity index","volume":"81","author":"Aziz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/16.9.1912","article-title":"Differential production of reactive oxygen species by subsets of human spermatozoa at different stages of maturation","volume":"16","author":"Ollero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2014.89","article-title":"NADPH oxidases: An overview from structure to innate immunity-associated pathologies","volume":"12","author":"Panday","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villaverde, A.I.S.B., Netherton, J., and Baker, M.A. (2019). From Past to Present: The Link Between Reactive Oxygen Species in Sperm and Male Infertility. Antioxidants, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox8120616"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5534\/wjmh.2014.32.1.1","article-title":"Effect of Oxidative Stress on Male Reproduction","volume":"32","author":"Agarwal","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Mens Health"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"IE01","article-title":"The Impact of Oxidative Stress on Testicular Function and the Role of Antioxidants in Improving it: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Asadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res. JCDR"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod31.4.785","article-title":"Quantification of The Human Sertoli Cell Population: Its Distribution, Relation To Germ Cell Numbers, and Age-Related Decline","volume":"31","author":"Johnson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2007.11.029","article-title":"Role of Sertoli cell number and function on regulation of spermatogenesis","volume":"105","author":"Johnson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1521-1878(200005)22:5<423::AID-BIES4>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Germ cell suicide: New insights into apoptosis during spermatogenesis","volume":"22","author":"Print","year":"2000","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-009-0103-8","article-title":"Apoptosis induced by modulation in selenium status involves p38 MAPK and ROS: Implications in spermatogenesis","volume":"330","author":"Ranawat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1640247","article-title":"The Role of The Star Protein in Steroidogenesis: Challenges for The Future","volume":"164","author":"Stocco","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2882","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2002-0090","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Disrupts Mitochondria in MA-10 Tumor Leydig Cells and Inhibits Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory (StAR) Protein and Steroidogenesis","volume":"144","author":"Diemer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/03602530600570040","article-title":"Antioxidant Protective Mechanisms against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Generated by Mitochondrial P450 Systems in Steroidogenic Cells","volume":"38","author":"Hanukoglu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod.112.107052","article-title":"Aging and Luteinizing Hormone Effects on Reactive Oxygen Species Production and DNA Damage in Rat Leydig Cells","volume":"88","author":"Beattie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R259","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-17-1058","article-title":"MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Management of Cushing\u2019s syndrome during pregnancy: Solved and unsolved questions","volume":"178","author":"Thierry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2003.10.069","article-title":"Antioxidant strategies in the epididymis","volume":"216","author":"Vernet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.12630","article-title":"Orchestrating the antioxidant defenses in the epididymis","volume":"7","year":"2019","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1002\/mrd.22871","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species as mediators of sperm capacitation and pathological damage","volume":"84","author":"Aitken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Reprod. Dev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod.103.020487","article-title":"Role of Hydrogen Peroxide in Sperm Capacitation and Acrosome Reaction1","volume":"70","author":"Rivlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2007.08.003","article-title":"Fatty acid composition of human spermatozoa and seminal plasma levels of oxidative stress biomarkers in subfertile males","volume":"77","author":"Khosrowbeygi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1530\/jrf.0.0810459","article-title":"Cellular basis of defective sperm function and its association with the genesis of reactive oxygen species by human spermatozoa","volume":"81","author":"Aitken","year":"1987","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(16)43999-3","article-title":"Peroxidative breakdown of phospholipids in human spermatozoa, spermicidal properties of fatty acid peroxides, and protective action of seminal plasma","volume":"31","author":"Jones","year":"1979","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1042\/bj1980273","article-title":"Oxygen metabolism of mammalian spermatozoa. Generation of hydrogen peroxide by rabbit epididymal spermatozoa","volume":"198","author":"Holland","year":"1981","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1042\/bj0470199","article-title":"Metabolism of spermatozoa. The formation and elimination of hydrogen peroxide by spermatozoa and effects on motility and survival","volume":"47","author":"Tosic","year":"1950","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod41.1.183","article-title":"Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species, Lipid Peroxidation, and Human Sperm Function","volume":"41","author":"Clarkson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biol. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.581838","article-title":"The role of genetics and oxidative stress in the etiology of male infertility\u2014A unifying hypothesis?","volume":"11","author":"Aitken","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"51","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) level in seminal plasma of infertile men and healthy donors","volume":"5","author":"Moein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Iran J. Reprod. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7827-12-33","article-title":"Characterizing semen parameters and their association with reactive oxygen species in infertile men","volume":"12","author":"Agarwal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2009.12.030","article-title":"Semen characteristics and sperm DNA fragmentation in infertile men with low and high levels of seminal reactive oxygen species","volume":"94","author":"Mahfouz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2973","article-title":"Evaluation of ROS-TAC Score and DNA Damage in Fertile Normozoospermic and Infertile Asthenozoospermic Males","volume":"14","author":"Vatannejad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urol. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1159\/000151401","article-title":"Poor semen quality and ROS-TAC scores in patients with idiopathic infertility","volume":"81","author":"Pasqualotto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Urol. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.5534\/wjmh.190055","article-title":"Male Oxidative Stress Infertility (MOSI): Proposed Terminology and Clinical Practice Guidelines for Management of Idiopathic Male Infertility","volume":"37","author":"Agarwal","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Mens Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.11.032","article-title":"Associations of neonatal lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel co-exposure with DNA oxidative damage in an electronic waste recycling town","volume":"472","author":"Ni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Permenter, M.G., Lewis, J.A., and Jackson, D.A. (2011). Exposure to nickel, chromium, or cadmium causes distinct changes in the gene expression patterns of a rat liver derived cell line. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027730"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.129204","article-title":"Nano-remediation of toxic heavy metal contamination: Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]","volume":"266","author":"Azeez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3787","DOI":"10.1039\/b920480f","article-title":"Chromium: Celebrating 50 years as an essential element?","volume":"39","author":"Vincent","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dalton Trans."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(12)65341-5","article-title":"Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin\u2014discoverer of chromium","volume":"64","author":"Kyle","year":"1989","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Nriagu, J.O., and Nieboer, E. (1988). Chromium in the Natural and Human Environments, John Wiley &Sons."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9861(55)90151-X","article-title":"Impaired intravenous glucose tolerance as an early sign of dietary necrotic liver degeneration","volume":"58","author":"Mertz","year":"1955","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9861(57)90228-X","article-title":"A glucose tolerance factor and its differentiation from factor 3","volume":"72","author":"Schwarz","year":"1957","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-0134(87)80065-X","article-title":"Insulin-like activity of chromium-binding fractions from brewer\u2019s yeast","volume":"30","author":"Hwang","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02784584","article-title":"The isolation of glucose tolerance factors from brewer\u2019s yeast and their relation to chromium","volume":"32","author":"Simonoff","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(1989). The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Recommended Dietary Allowances, National Academies Press. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.117.255901","article-title":"New evidence against chromium as an essential trace element","volume":"147","author":"Vincent","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1039\/an9952000931","article-title":"Uptake of chromate in human red blood cells and isolated rat liver cells: The role of the anion carrier","volume":"120","author":"Alexander","year":"1995","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)81228-5","article-title":"The Effect of Trivalent Chromium on Galactose Entry in Rat Epididymal Fat Tissue","volume":"238","author":"Mertz","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)64360-1","article-title":"Effect of Trivalent Chromium Complexes on Glucose Uptake by Epididymal Fat Tissue of Rats","volume":"236","author":"Mertz","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/0026-0495(66)90111-9","article-title":"Effect of trivalent chromium on glucose tolerance","volume":"15","author":"Glinsmann","year":"1966","journal-title":"Metab. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/21.3.203","article-title":"Improvement of Impaired Carbohydrate Metabolism by Chromium(III) in Malnourished Infants","volume":"21","author":"Hopkins","year":"1968","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/24.11.1313","article-title":"Effect of chromium on glucose utilization in marasmic protein-calorie malnutrition","volume":"24","author":"Saner","year":"1971","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/0026-0495(83)90203-2","article-title":"Chromium supplementation of human subjects: Effects on glucose, insulin, and lipid variables","volume":"32","author":"Anderson","year":"1983","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-0134(93)80003-R","article-title":"Composition and biological activity of chromium-pyridine carboxylate complexes","volume":"49","author":"Evans","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-0134(92)80034-S","article-title":"Chromium picolinate increases membrane fluidity and rate of insulin internalization","volume":"46","author":"Evans","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-670X(199607)9:1<11::AID-JTRA2>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Dietary chromium effects on tissue chromium concentrations and chromium absorption in rats","volume":"9","author":"Anderson","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med. Off. Publ. Int. Soc. Trace Elem. Res. Hum."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00622a033","article-title":"Different metal-binding properties of the two sites of human transferrin","volume":"16","author":"Harris","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4165(64)90228-4","article-title":"Chromium (III) binding to serum proteins, specifically siderophilin","volume":"90","author":"Hopkins","year":"1964","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA) Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02992700","article-title":"Speciation of chromium in plasma and liver tissue of endstage renal failure patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis","volume":"26","author":"Borguet","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8708","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)84438-1","article-title":"Insulin stimulates cellular iron uptake and causes the redistribution of intracellular transferrin receptors to the plasma membrane","volume":"261","author":"Davis","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8975","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)48032-5","article-title":"Insulin elicits a redistribution of transferrin receptors in 3T3-L1 adipocytes through an increase in the rate constant for receptor externalization","volume":"262","author":"Tanner","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2012.11.003","article-title":"Insulin promotes iron uptake in human hepatic cell by regulating transferrin receptor-1 transcription mediated by hypoxia inducible factor-1","volume":"1832","author":"Biswas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-128-3-1474","article-title":"Transcriptional regulation of ferritin messenger ribonucleic acid levels by insulin in cultured rat glioma cells","volume":"128","author":"Yokomori","year":"1991","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1007\/s007750100238","article-title":"The trail of chromium(III) in vivo from the blood to the urine: The roles of transferrin and chromodulin","volume":"6","author":"Clodfelder","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(81)90305-7","article-title":"A low-molecular-weight, chromium-binding substance in mammals","volume":"59","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1981","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s007750050183","article-title":"Chromium in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism","volume":"2","author":"Davis","year":"1997","journal-title":"JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-0134(84)80018-5","article-title":"Distribution and chromium-binding capacity of a low-molecular-weight, chromium-binding substance in mice","volume":"22","author":"Yamamoto","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/51.5.864","article-title":"Urinary chromium excretion and insulinogenic properties of carbohydrates","volume":"51","author":"Anderson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-012-9594-3","article-title":"Urinary Chromium Excretion in Response to an Insulin Challenge Is Not a Biomarker for Chromium Status","volume":"152","author":"Love","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00775-005-0647-3","article-title":"The time-dependent transport of chromium in adult rats from the bloodstream to the urine","volume":"10","author":"Clodfelder","year":"2005","journal-title":"JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1786","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.46.11.1786","article-title":"Elevated Intakes of Supplemental Chromium Improve Glucose and Insulin Variables in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"46","author":"Anderson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-670X(1999)12:2<55::AID-JTRA2>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Follow-up survey of people in China with type 2 diabetes mellitus consuming supplemental chromium","volume":"12","author":"Cheng","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/S0955-2863(02)00220-6","article-title":"Role of chromium supplementation in Indians with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"13","author":"Ghosh","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2006.8.677","article-title":"Clinical studies on chromium picolinate supplementation in diabetes mellitus\u2014A review","volume":"8","author":"Broadhurst","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/S0011-393X(98)85040-6","article-title":"A randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study of the effects of chromium picolinate supplementation on body composition: A replication and extension of a previous study","volume":"59","author":"Kaats","year":"1998","journal-title":"Curr. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/S0011-393X(96)80080-4","article-title":"Effects of chromium picolinate supplementation on body composition: A randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study","volume":"57","author":"Kaats","year":"1996","journal-title":"Curr. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsn.2.4.343","article-title":"Effects of chromium picolinate on beginning weight training students","volume":"2","author":"Hasten","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2006.12.001","article-title":"Chromium picolinate supplementation in women: Effects on body weight, composition, and iron status","volume":"23","author":"Lukaski","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"161","article-title":"The effect of chromium picolinate on muscular strength and body composition in women athletes","volume":"15","author":"Livolsi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199812000-00012","article-title":"Chromium picolinate effects on body composition and muscular performance in wrestlers","volume":"30","author":"Walker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsn.4.2.142","article-title":"Effects of chromium picolinate supplementation on body composition, strength, and urinary chromium loss in football players","volume":"4","author":"Clancy","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5718(01)00301-1","article-title":"Chromium (III) tris (picolinate) is mutagenic at the hypoxanthine (guanine) phosphoribosyltransferase locus in Chinese hamster ovary cells","volume":"513","author":"Stearns","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagenesis"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.9.15.8529845","article-title":"Chromium (III) picolinate produces chromosome damage in Chinese hamster ovary cells 1","volume":"9","author":"Stearns","year":"1995","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1007\/s00775-002-0357-z","article-title":"Ultrastructural damage in chromium picolinate-treated cells: A TEM study","volume":"7","author":"Manygoats","year":"2002","journal-title":"JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1096\/fasebj.9.15.8529846","article-title":"A prediction of chromium (III) accumulation in humans from chromium dietary supplements","volume":"9","author":"Stearns","year":"1995","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.1997.10718685","article-title":"Lack of toxicity of chromium chloride and chromium picolinate in rats","volume":"16","author":"Anderson","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200333030-00004","article-title":"The potential value and toxicity of chromium picolinate as a nutritional supplement, weight loss agent and muscle development agent","volume":"33","author":"Vincent","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2005.02.003","article-title":"Chromium toxicity in plants","volume":"31","author":"Shanker","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2801","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dei148","article-title":"Chronic chromium exposure-induced changes in testicular histoarchitecture are associated with oxidative stress: Study in a non-human primate (Macaca radiata Geoffroy)","volume":"20","author":"Aruldhas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2006.03.025","article-title":"In vivo spermatotoxic effect of chromium as reflected in the epididymal epithelial principal cells, basal cells, and intraepithelial macrophages of a nonhuman primate (Macaca radiata Geoffroy)","volume":"86","author":"Aruldhas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1530\/rep.1.00067","article-title":"Microcanalization in the epididymis to overcome ductal obstruction caused by chronic exposure to chromium\u2013a study in the mature bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata Geoffroy)","volume":"128","author":"Aruldhas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/0748233715600333","article-title":"Mechanisms of chromium hexavalent-induced apoptosis in rat testes","volume":"33","author":"Marouani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicol. Ind. Health"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.10.010","article-title":"In utero exposure to hexavalent chromium disrupts rat fetal testis development","volume":"299","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-4878(01)00004-7","article-title":"Effect of Cr (VI) exposure on sperm quality: Human and animal studies","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6238(03)00040-6","article-title":"Semen quality of Indian welders occupationally exposed to nickel and chromium","volume":"17","author":"Danadevi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"35","article-title":"Cadmium, chromium, and copper concentration plus semen-quality in environmental pollution site, China","volume":"43","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-013-0998-3","article-title":"Outline of occupational chromium poisoning in China","volume":"90","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.530","article-title":"Male-mediated spontaneous abortion among spouses of stainless steel welders","volume":"26","author":"Hjollund","year":"2000","journal-title":"Scand. J. Work. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-011-9002-4","article-title":"Potential of chromium (III) picolinate for reproductive or developmental toxicity following exposure of male CD-1 mice prior to mating","volume":"143","author":"McAdory","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1017\/S1431927613000858","article-title":"Light microscopy studies on mice testis after the nutritional supplement chromium (III)-tris (picolinate)","volume":"19","author":"Ferreira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microsc. Microanal."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-015-0347-y","article-title":"Blood parameters and toxicity of chromium picolinate oral supplementation in lambs","volume":"168","author":"Dallago","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.11118\/actaun201260010049","article-title":"The effect of a supplement of chromium (picolinate) on the level of blood glucose, insulin activity and changes in laboratory evaluation of the ejaculate of breeding boars","volume":"60","author":"Zeman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Univ. Agric. Silvic. Mendel. Brun."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.5958\/0974-8180.2020.00021.5","article-title":"Effect of dietary organic zinc and chromium supplementation on semen quality in layer breeders","volume":"55","author":"Shanmugam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2014.10.007","article-title":"Effects of dietary supplementation of organic chromium (picolinate) on physical and biochemical characteristics of semen and carcass traits of male turkeys","volume":"151","author":"Biswas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"203","article-title":"Influence of adding organic chromium in diet on productive traits, serum constituents and immune status of Bandarah laying hens and semen physical properties for cocks in winter season","volume":"31","author":"Maysa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Egypt. Poult. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2006.03.004","article-title":"Reproductive toxicity of chromium in adult bonnet monkeys (Macaca radiata Geoffrey). Reversible oxidative stress in the semen","volume":"215","author":"Subramanian","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.22688","article-title":"Modulatory effect of Turnera diffusa against testicular toxicity induced by fenitrothion and\/or hexavalent chromium in rats","volume":"34","author":"Jebur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2010.01.008","article-title":"Vitamin E-supplementation protect chromium (VI)-induced spermatogenic and steroidogenic disorders in testicular tissues of rats","volume":"48","author":"Chandra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-014-9969-8","article-title":"Protective role of cactus cladodes extract on sodium dichromate-induced testicular injury and oxidative stress in rats","volume":"159","author":"Hfaiedh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2005.11.004","article-title":"Testicular dysfunction and antioxidative defense system of Swiss mice after chromic acid exposure","volume":"22","author":"Acharya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2003.08.010","article-title":"Potential role of vitamins in chromium induced spermatogenesis in Swiss mice","volume":"15","author":"Acharya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Antioxidants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/10\/9\/1365\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:53:27Z","timestamp":1760165607000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3921\/10\/9\/1365"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["antiox10091365"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox10091365","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3921"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3921","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]]}}}