{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T05:06:11Z","timestamp":1772600771484,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]],"date-time":"2021-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1619568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"This work was financially supported by: Base Funding - UIDB\/04708\/2020 and Programmatic Funding - UIDP\/04708\/2020 of the CONSTRUCT - Instituto de I&amp;D em Estruturas e Constru\u00e7\u00f5es   funded by national funds through the FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]},{"name":"The paper reflects research developed in the ambit of the project PEDDIR DEMO, NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-006397, founded by Ag\u00eancia Nacional de Inova\u00e7\u00e3o S.A., program P2020|COMPETE - Projetos Demonstradores em Copromo\u00e7\u00e3o.","award":["NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-006397"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-006397"]}]},{"name":"The authors are also sincerely grateful to the European Commission for the financial sponsorship of H2020 MARIE SK\u0141ODOWSKA-CURIE RISE Project, Grant No. 691135 \u201cRISEN: Rail Infrastructure Systems Engineering Network,\u201d","award":["691135"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["691135"]}]},{"name":"project IN2TRACK2 \u2013 Research into enhanced track and switch and crossing system 2, funded by European funds through the H2020 (SHIFT2RAIL Innovation Programme).","award":["H2020 (SHIFT2RAIL Innovation Programme)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020 (SHIFT2RAIL Innovation Programme)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gradual deterioration of train wheels can increase the risk of failure and lead to a higher rate of track deterioration, resulting in less reliable railway systems with higher maintenance costs. Early detection of potential wheel damages allows railway infrastructure managers to control railway operators, leading to lower infrastructure maintenance costs. This study focuses on identifying the type of sensors that can be adopted in a wayside monitoring system for wheel flat detection, as well as their optimal position. The study relies on a 3D numerical simulation of the train-track dynamic response to the presence of wheel flats. The shear and acceleration measurement points were defined in order to examine the sensitivity of the layout schemes not only to the type of sensors (strain gauge and accelerometer) but also to the position where they are installed. By considering the shear and accelerations evaluated in 19 positions of the track as inputs, the wheel flat was identified by the envelope spectrum approach using spectral kurtosis analysis. The influence of the type of sensors and their location on the accuracy of the wheel flat detection system is analyzed. Two types of trains were considered, namely the Alfa Pendular passenger vehicle and a freight wagon.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app11094002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]],"date-time":"2021-04-28T10:41:58Z","timestamp":1619606518000},"page":"4002","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["Railway Vehicle Wheel Flat Detection with Multiple Records Using Spectral Kurtosis Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6751-0388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Araliya","family":"Mosleh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5699-4428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Aires","family":"Montenegro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Pedro Alves","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Cal\u00e7ada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1243\/0954409001531351","article-title":"Out-of-round railway wheels-a literature survey","volume":"214","author":"Nielsen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1243\/095440905X8853","article-title":"A Review of the Effects of Out-Of-Round Wheels on Track and Vehicle Components","volume":"219","author":"Barke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1080\/00423110500184649","article-title":"Out-of-round railway wheels\u2014A study of wheel polygonalization through simulation of three-dimensional wheel\u2013rail interaction and wear","volume":"43","author":"Johansson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, J. (2009). Out-of-Round Railway Wheels, Chalmers University of Technology.","DOI":"10.1533\/9781845696788.1.245"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1051\/meca\/2013074","article-title":"Dynamics of railway track subjected to distributed and local out-of-round wheels","volume":"14","author":"Fesharakifard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Ind."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2019.04.019","article-title":"Wear damage of out-of-round wheels in rail wagons under braking","volume":"102","author":"Lan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1076\/vesd.31.1.1.2097","article-title":"Impact Loads due to Wheel Flats and Shells","volume":"31","author":"Dukkipati","year":"1999","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1006\/jsvi.2001.3980","article-title":"A hybrid model for the noise generation due to railway wheel flats","volume":"251","author":"Wu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.3329\/jme.v39i2.1851","article-title":"Dynamic analysis of railway vehicle-track interactions due to wheel flat with a pitch-plane vehicle model","volume":"39","author":"Uzzal","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Vale, C. (2010). Influ\u00eancia da Qualidade dos Sistemas Ferrovi\u00e1rios no Comportamento Din\u00e2mico e no Planeamento da Manuten\u00e7\u00e3o Preventiva de Vias de Alta Velocidade. [Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto]. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5714195","article-title":"Railway Wheel Flat Detection Based on Improved Empirical Mode Decomposition","volume":"2016","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Shock. Vib."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409718784362","article-title":"Reconstruction of an informative railway wheel defect signal from wheel\u2013rail contact signals measured by multiple wayside sensors","volume":"233","author":"Alemi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Palo, M. (2012). Condition Monitoring of Railway Vehicles, A Study on Wheel Condition for Heavy Haul Rolling Stock, Operation and Maintenance Engineering Lule\u00e5 University of Technology."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baasch, B., Heusel, J., Roth, M., and Neumann, T. (2021). Train Wheel Condition Monitoring via Cepstral Analysis of Axle Box Accelerations. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11041432"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.107336","article-title":"A spatial coupling model to study dynamic performance of pantograph-catenary with vehicle-track excitation","volume":"151","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3901\/JME.2008.03.029","article-title":"Anti-sliding control simulation of railway vehicle braking","volume":"44","author":"Luo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chin. J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.03.072","article-title":"Wheel flat detection algorithm for onboard diagnostic","volume":"123","author":"Bosso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.11.014","article-title":"Train wheel diagnostics by laser ultrasonics","volume":"80","author":"Cavuto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csndt.2016.06.002","article-title":"Onboard detection of railway axle bearing defects using envelope analysis of high frequency acoustic emission signals","volume":"6","author":"Amini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Stud. Nondestruct. Test. Eval."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1177\/0954406215623575","article-title":"Enhanced fault diagnosis of roller bearing elements using a combination of empirical mode decomposition and minimum entropy deconvolution","volume":"231","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meixedo, A., Goncalves, A., Calcada, R., Gabriel, J., Fonseca, H., and Martins, R. (2015, January 2\u20134). Weighing in motion and wheel defect detection of rolling stock. Proceedings of the 2015 3rd Experiment International Conference (exp.at\u201915), Ponta Delgada, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/EXPAT.2015.7463220"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amini, A., Entezami, M., Huang, Z., Rowshandel, H., and Papaelias, M. (2016). Wayside detection of faults in railway axle bearings using time spectral kurtosis analysis on high-frequency acoustic emission signals. Adv. Mech. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.1177\/1687814016676000"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2015.1025291","article-title":"The influence of train properties on railway ground vibrations","volume":"12","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Mosleh, A., Meixedo, A., Costa, P., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2019, January 19\u201321). Trackside Monitoring Solution for Weighing in Motion of Rolling Stock. Proceedings of the TESTE2019\u20142nd Conference on Testing and Experimentations in Civil Engineering\u2014Proceedings, Porto, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409719838115","article-title":"A new strategy to estimate static loads for the dynamic weighing in motion of railway vehicles","volume":"234","author":"Mosleh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1080\/23248378.2016.1184598","article-title":"Railway structure monitoring solutions using fibre Bragg grating sensors","volume":"4","author":"Kouroussis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Rail Transp."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409715576015","article-title":"A comprehensive prediction model for vehicle\/track\/soil dynamic response due to wheel flats","volume":"230","author":"Alexandrou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"Development of a Low-Cost Trackside System for Weighing in Motion and Wheel Defects Detection","volume":"7","author":"Mosleh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Railw. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/s11668-007-9043-3","article-title":"Structural Health Monitoring of Railroad Wheels Using Wheel Impact Load Detectors","volume":"7","author":"Stratman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Fail. Anal. Preven."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"687","article-title":"Wheel tread defect detection for high-speed trains using FBG-based online monitoring techniques","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, R., He, Q., and Feng, Q. (2019). Railway Wheel Flat Detection System Based on a Parallelogram Mechanism. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19163614"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2009.12.007","article-title":"An energy operator approach to joint application of amplitude and frequency-demodulations for bearing fault detection","volume":"24","author":"Liang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, C., Gao, L., Xiao, H., and Hou, B. (2020). Railway Wheel Flat Recognition and Precise Positioning Method Based on Multisensor Arrays. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10041297"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1177\/1077546315597820","article-title":"Early detection of tooth crack damage in gearbox using empirical wavelet transform combined by Hilbert transform","volume":"23","author":"Merainani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vib. Control."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lv, Y., Ge, M., Zhang, Y., Yi, C., and Ma, Y. (2019). A Novel Demodulation Analysis Technique for Bearing Fault Diagnosis via Energy Separation and Local Low-Rank Matrix Approximation. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173755"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meixedo, A., Goncalves, A., Calcada, R., Gabriel, J., Fonseca, H., and Martins, R. (2015, January 2\u20134). On-line monitoring system for tracks. Proceedings of the 3rd Experiment International Conference: Online Experimentation, Ponta Delgada, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/EXPAT.2015.7463240"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mosleh, A., Montenegro, P., Costa, P.A., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2020). An approach for wheel flat detection of railway train wheels using envelope spectrum analysis. Struct. Infrastruct. Eng., 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2020.1832536"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"ANSYS\u00ae (2018). Academic Research, Release 19.2, ANSYS Inc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neto, J., Montenegro, P.A., Vale, C., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2020). Evaluation of the train running safety under crosswinds\u2014A numerical study on the influence of the wind speed and orientation considering the normative Chinese hat model International. J. Rail Transp., 1\u201328.","DOI":"10.1080\/23248378.2020.1780965"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Neto, J., Montenegro, P.A., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2019, January 1\u20132). An innovative approach for an inverse dynamic model of a freight wagon. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Risk Analysis and Safety of Complex Structures and Components, Porto, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"European Standard (2002). Railway Applications Railway Applications\u2014Track-Rail-Part1: Vignole Railway 46 kg\/m and above, European Union. peEN 13674\u20131, Final Draft."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1080\/00423110802621561","article-title":"Fundamentals of vehicle-track coupled dynamics","volume":"47","author":"Zhai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"ERRI D 214\/RP 5 (1999). Rail Bridges for Speeds > 200 km\/h: NUMERICAL Investigation of the Effect of Track Irregularities at Bridge Resonance, European Rail Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"UIC 774-3-R (2001). Track\/Bridge Interaction\u2014Recommendations for Calculation, International Union of Railways (UIC). [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-0296(02)00147-5","article-title":"Steady-state response and riding comfort of trains moving over a series of simply supported bridges","volume":"25","author":"Wu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"ERRI D 202\/RP 11 (1999). Improved Knowledge of Forces in CWR Track (Including Switches): Parametric Study and Sensivity Analysis of Cwerri, European Rail Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euromechsol.2008.02.001","article-title":"Dynamic interaction of various beams with the underlying soil\u2014Finite and infinite, half-space and Winkler models","volume":"27","author":"Auersch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mech. A\/Solids"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.02.027","article-title":"A direct method for analyzing the nonlinear vehicle\u2013structure interaction","volume":"69","author":"Neves","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montenegro, P.A., Neves, S.G.M., Azevedo, A.F.M., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2013, January 12\u201314). A nonlinear vehicle-structure interaction methodology with wheel-rail detachment and reattachment. Proceedings of the COMPDYN 2013\u20144th ECCOMAS Thematic Conference on Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Kos, Greece.","DOI":"10.7712\/120113.4533.C1269"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2011.10.010","article-title":"A direct method for analyzing the vertical vehicle\u2013structure interaction","volume":"34","author":"Neves","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruc.2015.01.004","article-title":"Wheel-rail contact formulation for analyzing the lateral train-structure dynamic interaction","volume":"152","author":"Montenegro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Struct."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1515\/crll.1882.92.156","article-title":"Ueber die Ber\u00fchrung fester elastischer K\u00f6rper [On the contact of elastic solids]","volume":"92","author":"Hertz","year":"1882","journal-title":"J. Reine Angew. Math."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Kalker, J.J. (1996). Book of Tables for the Hertzian Creep-Force Law, Delft University of Technology."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"MATLAB\u00ae (2018). Release R2018a, The MathWorks Inc."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Montenegro, P.A. (2015). A Methodology for the Assessment of the Train Running Safety on Bridges, Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Abell, M.L., Braselton, J.P., and Rafter, J.A. (1999). Statistics with Mathematica, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandt, A. (2011). Noise and Vibration Analysis: Signal Analysis and Experimental Procedures, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470978160"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1177\/0954409719831822","article-title":"Perspectives on railway axle bearing condition monitoring","volume":"234","author":"Entezami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part F J. Rail Rapid Transit"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-7161(83)03009-6","article-title":"Complex Demodulation: Some Theory and Applications","volume":"3","author":"Hasan","year":"1983","journal-title":"Handb. Stat."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2005.12.002","article-title":"Fast computation of the kurtogram for the detection of transient faults","volume":"21","author":"Antoni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2004.09.001","article-title":"The spectral kurtosis: A useful tool for characterising non-stationary signals","volume":"20","author":"Antoni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/9\/4002\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:54:40Z","timestamp":1760162080000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/9\/4002"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["app11094002"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app11094002","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]}}}