{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T05:34:12Z","timestamp":1773812052151,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["PTDC\/EQU-EQU\/29737\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/EQU-EQU\/29737\/2017"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50006\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDB\/04292\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04292\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) are used for various applications, such as in refrigeration and air conditioning, as substitutes of the ozone-depleting substances. Their utilization has increased drastically over the last few decades, with serious consequences for global warming. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol and several national and international legislations, such as the 2014 EU F-gas Regulation, aim to control the utilization and emissions of these gases. In the EU, the phase-down of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) is underway, with successive reductions in quotas up to 2050. Under this scenario, efficient strategies for managing the produced and already existing F-gases are of vital importance to guarantee that their effect on the environment is mitigated. Up to now, most of the F-gases recovered from end-of-life equipment or when retrofitting systems are either released into the atmosphere or destroyed. However, in order to put forward a cost-efficient adaptation to the F-gas phase-down, increasing separation and recycling efforts must be made. This critical review aims at providing a revision of the current F-gas management problems and strategies and providing an overview on the innovative strategies that can be applied to contribute to build a sustainable market under circular economy principles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app11104367","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]],"date-time":"2021-05-11T10:20:36Z","timestamp":1620728436000},"page":"4367","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Waste Management Strategies to Mitigate the Effects of Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases on Climate Change"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Paulo J.","family":"Castro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8648-7539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o M. M.","family":"Ar\u00e1ujo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2585-6131","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gra\u00e7a","family":"Martinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MARE, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7166-6764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana B.","family":"Pereiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pc.42.100191.003503","article-title":"Stratospheric Ozone Depletion","volume":"42","author":"Rowland","year":"1991","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1126\/science.249.4964.31","article-title":"The CEC-Ozone Issue: Progress on the Development of Alternatives to CFCs","volume":"249","author":"Manzer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.110759","article-title":"Climate change and industrial F-gases: A critical and systematic review of developments, sociotechnical systems and policy options for reducing synthetic greenhouse gas emissions","volume":"141","author":"Sovacool","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"IPCC (2021, March 22). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Available online: https:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/site\/assets\/uploads\/2018\/02\/ipcc_wg3_ar5_full.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2020, November 20). EEA Greenhouse Gas\u2014Data Viewer, Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/data-and-maps\/data\/data-viewers\/greenhouse-gases-viewer."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2795","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-2795-2017","article-title":"Global emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases 2005\u20132050 with abatement potentials and costs","volume":"17","author":"Purohit","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"\u00d6ko-Recherche (2021, March 22). Briefing Paper: Availability of Alternatives to HFCs in Commercial Refrigeration in the EU. Available online: https:\/\/www.oekorecherche.de\/en\/node\/205."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Zaelke, D., Borgford-Parnell, N., and Andersen, S.O. (2021, March 22). Primer on HFCs Fast Action under the Montreal Protocol Can Limit Growth of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Prevent 100 to 200 Billion Tonnes of CO2-eq by 2050, and Avoid up to 0.5 \u00b0C of Warming by 2100. Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development. Available online: http:\/\/www.igsd.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/01\/HFC-Primer-v11Jan18.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"IEA (2021, March 22). Cooling Emissions and Policy Synthesis Report. Paris, Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/cooling-emissions-and-policy-synthesis-report."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2021, May 07). World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project\u2013Report No. 58. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, Available online: https:\/\/csl.noaa.gov\/assessments\/ozone\/2018\/downloads\/2018OzoneAssessment.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s12273-019-0509-5","article-title":"Climate change: Projections and implications to building energy use","volume":"12","author":"Zhai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Build. Simul."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2014.07.034","article-title":"Impact of climate change heating and cooling energy use in buildings in the United States","volume":"82","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2010.01.022","article-title":"Assessment of climate change impact on residential building heating and cooling energy requirement in Australia","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2011.06.041","article-title":"Heating and cooling energy demand and related emissions of the German residential building stock under climate change","volume":"39","author":"Olonscheck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2010.03.003","article-title":"Predicted changes in energy demands for heating and cooling due to climate change","volume":"35","author":"Dolinar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.04.001","article-title":"Energy demand for the heating and cooling of residential houses in Finland in a changing climate","volume":"99","author":"Jokisalo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Park, W.Y., Shah, N., and Gerke, B. (2021, March 22). Assessment of Commercially Available Energy-Efficient Room Air Conditioners including Models with Low Global Warming Potential (GWP) Refrigerants. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Available online: https:\/\/eta-publications.lbl.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/assessment_of_racs_lbnl-_2001047.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"12","article-title":"Climate change and biodiversity: Impacts and policy development challenges\u2014A European case study","volume":"3","author":"Brooker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2016.1175981","article-title":"Sources, fates, toxicity, and risks of trifluoroacetic acid and its salts: Relevance to substances regulated under the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols","volume":"19","author":"Solomon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8686","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065856","article-title":"Ozone depletion by hydrofluorocarbons","volume":"42","author":"Hurwitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"11728","article-title":"Increase in HFC-134a emissions in response to the success of the Montreal Protocol","volume":"120","author":"Saunois","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1017\/ilm.2016.2","article-title":"Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Kigali Amendment)","volume":"56","author":"Heath","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Leg. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2021, March 22). Regulation (EU) No 517\/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 842\/2006. OJ L 150, 20.5.2014. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2014\/517\/oj."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2021, March 22). Regulation (EU) No 842\/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2006 on Certain Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases. OJ L 161, 14.6.2006. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2006\/842\/oj."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"EEA Report No 15\/2020 (2021, March 22). Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases 2020: Data Reported by Companies on the Production, Import, Export and Destruction of Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases in the European Union, 2007\u20132019. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/publications\/fluorinated-greenhouse-gases-2020."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"EIA (2021, March 22). Doors Wide Open: Europe\u2019s Flourishing Illegal Trade in Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Available online: https:\/\/eia-international.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/EIA-report-Doors-wide-open.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eneco.2018.01.003","article-title":"Effects of long-term climate change on global building energy expenditures","volume":"72","author":"Clarke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Econ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2020.109874","article-title":"Effects of climate change on variations in climatic zones and heating energy consumption of residential buildings in the southern Chile","volume":"215","author":"Verichev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2019.106165","article-title":"Assessing the applicability of various climatic zoning methods for building construction: Case study from the extreme southern part of Chile","volume":"160","author":"Verichev","year":"2019","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrefrig.2019.11.012","article-title":"Overview of low GWP mixtures for the replacement of HFC refrigerants: R134a, R404A and R410A","volume":"111","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Refrig."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2016.06.098","article-title":"An experimental investigation on the substitution of HFC134a with HFO1234YF in a domestic refrigerator","volume":"106","author":"Aprea","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2017.05.074","article-title":"Energy and exergy analysis of R1234yf as drop-in replacement for R134a in a domestic refrigeration system","volume":"132","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrefrig.2016.09.009","article-title":"Second law analysis of an automotive air conditioning system using HFO-1234yf, an environmentally friendly refrigerant","volume":"73","author":"Golzari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Refrig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1080\/23744731.2016.1223996","article-title":"Theoretical evaluation of supermarket refrigeration systems using R1234ze(E) as an alternative to high-global warming potential refrigerants","volume":"22","author":"Gullo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021, March 22). ZERO: Mais de 90% Dos Gases de Refrigera\u00e7\u00e3o de Frigor\u00edficos e Equipamentos de ar Condicionado S\u00e3o Libertados Para a at-Mosfera. Available online: https:\/\/zero.ong\/mais-de-90-dos-gases-de-refrigeracao-de-frigorificos-e-equipamentos-de-ar-condicionado-sao-libertados-para-a-atmosfera\/."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, April 18). Directive 2000\/53\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on End-of Life Vehicles\u2014Commission Statements OJ L 269, 21.10.2000. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2000\/53\/oj."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2021, April 18). Directive 2006\/40\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2006 Relating to Emissions from Air Conditioning Systems in Motor Vehicles and Amending Council Directive 70\/156\/EEC (Text with EEA Relevance) OJ L 161, 14.6.2006. Available online: http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2006\/40\/oj."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"ICF International (2021, March 29). Analysis on the Recovery of Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases in EU-27 in the Period of 2004\u20132007 and De-termination of Options for Further Progress. Prepared for the European Commission. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/clima\/sites\/clima\/files\/f-gas\/docs\/gas_recovery_report_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021, March 29). 2018 TEAP Report, Volume 2: Decision XXIX\/4 TEAP Task Force Report on Destruction Technologies for Controlled Sub-stances. Available online: https:\/\/ozone.unep.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-04\/TEAP-DecXXIX4-TF-Report-April2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2021, March 22). Briefing: Ozone Depleting Substances 2020, Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/themes\/climate\/ozone-depleting-substances-and-climate-change\/2020."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"ICF International (2021, March 22). Report Prepared for the European Commission. Identifying and Assessing Policy Options for Promoting the Recovery and Destruction of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) and Certain Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases (F-Gases) Banked In Products and Equipment. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/clima\/sites\/clima\/files\/ozone\/docs\/ods_f-gas_destruction_report_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) (2021, March 22). Report of the UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP), Report of the Task Force on Destruction Technologies. Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. United Nations Environment Programme. Volume 3B. Available online: https:\/\/ozone.unep.org\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-05\/TEAP02V3b%20%281%29.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13899-4","article-title":"Increase in global emissions of HFC-23 despite near-total expected reductions","volume":"11","author":"Stanley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1080\/00102209808952095","article-title":"On the Incinerability of Highly Fluorinated Organic Compounds","volume":"139","author":"Tsang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Combust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2018.11.008","article-title":"Thermal destruction of HFC-134a in pilot-, and full-scale gasification systems","volume":"92","author":"Roh","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s11090-009-9183-1","article-title":"Destruction of Freon HFC-134a Using a Nozzleless Microwave Plasma Source","volume":"29","author":"Dors","year":"2009","journal-title":"Plasma Chem. Plasma Process."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2007.10.062","article-title":"Water plasma generation under atmospheric pressure for HFC destruction","volume":"516","author":"Watanabe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Thin Solid Film."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6586","DOI":"10.1021\/jp8020084","article-title":"Decomposition of Hydrofluorocarbons in a Dielectric-Packed Plasma Reactor","volume":"112","author":"Mok","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Delprat, H. (1996). Air Purification by Heterogeneous Photocatalysis. Application to the Treatment of a Confined Atmosphere Polluted by Freons or Pyrazines. [Ph.D. Thesis, Lyon\u2019s I University]."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(97)10083-2","article-title":"Photocatalytic degradation of 1,1-difluoroethane (HFC\u2014152a)","volume":"36","author":"Sangchakr","year":"1998","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.651-653.1357","article-title":"Photocatalytic Degradation of Hydrofluorocarbon under Visible Light Irradiation","volume":"651\u2013653","author":"Yin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"ECTA (2021, March 29). Guidelines for Measuring and Managing CO2 Emission from Freight Transport Operations. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecta.com\/resources\/Documents\/Best%20Practices%20Guidelines\/guideline_for_measuring_and_managing_co2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"AHRI Standard 700 (2021, March 29). 2019 Standard for Specifications for Refrigerants. Available online: https:\/\/www.ahrinet.org\/App_Content\/ahri\/files\/STANDARDS\/AHRI\/AHRI_Standard_700_2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"DAIKIN (2021, March 29). Closing the Loop: Towards a Circular Economy for Refrigerants. Available online: https:\/\/www.daikin.eu\/en_us\/daikin-blog\/building-a-circular-economy.html."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"BSRIA (2021, March 22). BSRIA\u2019s View on Refrigerant Trends in AC and Heat Pump Segments. Available online: https:\/\/www.bsria.com\/uk\/news\/article\/bsrias_view_on_refrigerant_trends_in_ac_and_heat_pump_segments\/."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"EFCTC (2021, March 22). Energy Efficient Air-Conditioning. Available online: https:\/\/www.fluorocarbons.org\/applications\/energy-efficient-air-conditioning\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2021, March 29). KET4F-Gas. Available online: http:\/\/www.ket4f-gas.eu\/."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2021, March 29). KET4F-Gas: Good Practices Handbook for Industry and Waste Managers. Available online: http:\/\/www.ket4f-gas.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/EN_Good_practices.pdf."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2021, March 29). KET4F-Gas: Roadmap for the Public Administrations in Charge of Waste Management. Available online: http:\/\/www.ket4f-gas.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/EN_Roadmap.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1892","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.6371","article-title":"Adsorption of fluorinated greenhouse gases on activated carbons: Evaluation of their potential for gas separation","volume":"95","author":"Sosa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.9b07195","article-title":"Separation of Refrigerant Gas Mixtures Containing R32, R134a, and R1234yf through Poly(ether-block-amide) Membranes","volume":"8","author":"Pardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/10\/4367\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:59:23Z","timestamp":1760162363000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/10\/4367"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["app11104367"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app11104367","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,11]]}}}