{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T07:38:10Z","timestamp":1773733090841,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The primary objective is to present the most representative types of damage observed in reinforced concrete (RC) structures due to earthquakes. Those damages are divided according to the ten most representative types. Examples and the main reasons that could trigger each failure mechanism are presented. The definition of these damage types is supported by post-earthquake damage reconnaissance missions in Sichuan (China) in 2008, L\u2019Aquila (Italy) in 2009, Lorca (Spain) in 2011, Emilia-Romagna (Italy) in 2012, Gorkha (Nepal) in 2015, Muisne (Ecuador) in 2016 and Chiapas (Mexico) in 2017. An extensive discussion is presented concerning the infill walls\u2019 seismic behaviour and their interaction with the RC structural elements. The presentation of the significant learnings and findings concerning the typical damage herein presented and discussed are compared with the common Southern European construction practice. The impact of the infill walls on the rehabilitation costs of damaged RC buildings is also studied. These costs are compared to those related to the structural damage and rehabilitation of the entire building structure to understand the impact of the infill walls. Finally, a case study is presented to study the effect of implementing simplified retrofitting strategies to prevent the soft-storey mechanism, one of the most common problems observed in past earthquake events.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app11135889","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T23:22:14Z","timestamp":1624576934000},"page":"5889","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["A Review of the Performance of Infilled RC Structures in Recent Earthquakes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Furtado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4150-003 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1373-4540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RISCO, Department of Civil Engineering, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0901-2214","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Ar\u00eade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4150-003 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0215-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Humberto","family":"Varum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-LESE, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4150-003 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-016-0001-3","article-title":"Common structural and construction deficiencies of Nepalese buildings","volume":"1","author":"Gautam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Innov. Infrastruct. Solut."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-013-9500-1","article-title":"The structural role played by masonry infills on RC building performances after the 2011 Lorca, Spain, earthquake","volume":"12","author":"Luca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1827","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-014-9602-4","article-title":"Foreword special issue LORCA\u2032s earthquake","volume":"12","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5631","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-017-0277-5","article-title":"Seismic response of RC buildings during the Mw 6.0 August 24, 2016 Central Italy earthquake: The Amatrice case study","volume":"17","author":"Masi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/537015a","article-title":"Italian scientists shocked by earthquake devastation","volume":"537","author":"Abbott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1007\/s40999-018-0297-9","article-title":"Seismic Assessment of a School Building in Nepal and Analysis of Retrofitting Solutions","volume":"16","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1080\/13632469708962375","article-title":"Seismic design and response of bare and masonry-infilled reinforced concrete buildings: Part II: Infilled structures","volume":"13","author":"Fardis","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"CEN (2005). Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance\u2014Part 1-1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for Standardization."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-016-9999-z","article-title":"Seismic performance of the infill masonry walls and ambient vibration tests after the Ghorka 2015, Nepal earthquake","volume":"15","author":"Varum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017198","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001926","article-title":"Macroelement Model for In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Responses of Masonry Infills in Frame Structures","volume":"144","author":"Trapani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014133","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000633","article-title":"Potential use of locked brick infill walls to decrease soft-story formation in frame buildings","volume":"29","author":"Misir","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Perform. Constr. Facil."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"SeismoSoft (2021, June 23). SeismoStruct\u2014A Computer Program for Static And Dynamic Nonlinear Analysis of Framed Structures [Online]. Available online: http:\/\/www.seismosoft.com."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Varum, H. (2003). Seismis Assessment, Strengthening and Repair of Existing Buildings. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade de Aveiro]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-012-0095-3","article-title":"Performance of masonry enclosure walls: Lessons learned from recent earthquakes","volume":"11","author":"Vicente","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2013.01.040","article-title":"Field observations and interpretation of the structural performance of constructions after the 11 May 2011 Lorca earthquake","volume":"34","author":"Costa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"CEN (2004). Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures\u2014Part 1-1: General Rules And Rules for Buildings, CEN."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"03119001","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000950","article-title":"Seismic Retrofit Schemes with FRP for Deficient RC Beam-Column Joints: State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"23","author":"Pohoryles","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.01.053","article-title":"Earthquake retrofitting of R\/C frames with soft first story using hysteretic dampers: Energy-based design method and evaluation","volume":"137","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2015.03.001","article-title":"Seismic Rehabilitation of RC Columns Under Biaxial Loading: An Experimental Characterization","volume":"3","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2015","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.12989\/sem.2011.39.4.499","article-title":"Effectiveness of some conventional seismic retrofitting techniques for bare and infilled R\/C frames","volume":"39","author":"Kakaletsis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Struct. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1080\/13632460902837686","article-title":"Cyclic Behavior of Smooth Steel Reinforcing Bars: Experimental Analysis and Modeling Issues","volume":"13","author":"Prota","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1080\/13632469.2017.1360224","article-title":"Modeling Techniques for the Seismic Assessment of the Existing Italian RC Frame Structures","volume":"23","author":"Sullivan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-018-00540-w","article-title":"Deformation capacity of reinforced concrete columns with smooth reinforcement","volume":"17","author":"Opabola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2008.01.024","article-title":"Seismic response of r.c. columns with smooth reinforcement. Part II: Cyclic tests","volume":"30","author":"Verderame","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"137","article-title":"Cyclic behavior of substandard reinforced concrete beam-column joints with plain bars","volume":"110","author":"Fernandes","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACI J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2015.01.033","article-title":"Experimental cyclic behaviour of RC columns with plain bars and proposal Eurocode 8 formula improvement","volume":"88","author":"Melo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Rodrigues, H. (2012). Biaxial Seismic Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Columns. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade de Aveiro]."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Sharma, M., Maheshwari, B., Singh, Y., and Sinvhal, A. (2012, January 28). Damage pattern during Sikkim, India earthquake of September 18, 2011. Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Risi, M., Gaudio, C., and Verderame, G. (2019). Evaluation of Repair Costs for Masonry Infills in RC Buildings from Observed Damage Data: The Case-Study of the 2009 L\u2032Aquila Earthquake. Buildings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings9050122"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1139\/l89-129","article-title":"Behaviour of masonry infilled steel frames","volume":"16","author":"Dawe","year":"1989","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.011","article-title":"Experimental investigation of the influence of slenderness ratio and of the in-plane\/out-of-plane interaction on the out-of-plane strength of URM infill walls","volume":"191","author":"Ricci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2019.03.111","article-title":"Experimental investigation on the influence of the aspect ratio on the in-plane\/out-of-plane interaction for masonry infills in RC frames","volume":"189","author":"Ricci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Angel, R., Abrams, D., Shapiro, D., Uzarski, J., and Webster, M. (1994). Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Frames, with Masonry Infills, Civil Engineering Studies, Reserach Series No. 589, UILU-ENG. University of Ilinois."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1080\/13632460109350390","article-title":"Seismic response of reinforced concrete frames infilled with weakly reinforced masonry panels","volume":"5","author":"Calvi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Pereira, P., Pereira, M., Ferreira, J., and Louren\u00e7o, P. (2011, January 13\u201315). Behavior of masonry infill panels in RC frames subjected to in plane and out of plane loads. Proceedings of the 7th Conference on on Analytical Models and New Concepts in Concrete and Masonry Structure, Cracow, Poland."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-016-0039-9","article-title":"Estimation of repair costs for RC and masonry residential buildings based on damage data collected by post-earthquake visual inspection","volume":"15","author":"Prota","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.01.028","article-title":"Seismic retrofit options for non-structural building partition walls: Impact on loss estimation and cost-benefit analysis","volume":"161","author":"Sousa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Dolce, M., Speranza, E., Giordano, F., Borzi, B., Bocchi, F., Conte, C., Meo, A., Faravelli, M., and Pascale, V.D.D. (2017, January 21). O\u2014A web-based tool for analyzing and comparing post-earthquake damage database relevant to national seismic events since 1976. Proceedings of the Atti del XVII Convegno ANIDIS L\u2032ingegneria Sismica in Italia, Pistoia, Italy."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Baggio, C., Bernardini, A., Colozza, R., Coppari, S., Corazza, L., Della Bella, M., Di Pasquale, G., Dolce, M., Goretti, A., and Martinelli, A. (2007). Field manual for post-earthquake damage and safety assessment and short term countermeasures. JRC Sci. Tech. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Grunthal, G. (1998). Cahiers du Centre Europeen de Geodynamique et de Seismologie: Volume 15\u2014European Macroseismic Scale. Eur. Cent. Geodyn. Seismol. Luxemb."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Dolce, M., and Manfredi, G. (2015). Libro Bianco Sulla Ricostruzione Privata Fuori dai Centri Storici nei Comuni Colpiti dal Sisma Dell\u2019abruzzo del 6 Aprile 2009."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Carvalho, E., and Coelho, E. (1984). An\u00e1lise S\u00edsmica de Estruturas de Edif\u00edcios Segundo a Nova Regulamenta\u00e7\u00e3o\u2014An\u00e1lise Estrutural de um Conjunto de 22 Edif\u00edcios, CORE."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s11709-019-0602-y","article-title":"Mechanical properties characterization of different types of masonry infill walls","volume":"14","author":"Furtado","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Struct. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9445(1988)114:8(1804)","article-title":"Theoretical streess-strain model for confined concrete","volume":"114","author":"Mander","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Menegotto, M., and Pinto, P. (1973). Method of Analysis for Cyclically Loaded Reinforced Concrete Plane Frames Including Changes in Geometry and Non-Elastic Behaviour of Elements under Combined Normal Force and Bending."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Crisafulli, F. (1997). Seismic Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Structures with Masonry Infills. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Canterbury]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-011-9262-6","article-title":"Implementation and verification of a msonry panel model for nonlinear dynamic analysis of infilled RC frames","volume":"9","author":"Smyrou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10999-008-9070-6","article-title":"A non-linear masonry infill macro-model to represent the global behaviour of buildings under cyclic loading","volume":"4","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"SEAOC-Vision2000 (1995). Performance Based Seismic Engineering of Buildings, Vols. I and II: Conceptual Framework, Structural Engineers Association of California."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"FEMA356 (2000). Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings. Federal Emergency Management Agency."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gobarah, A. (July, January 28). On drift limits associated with different damage levels. Proceedings of the International Workshop, Bled, Slovenia."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thermou, G., and Elnashai, A. (2005). Seismic retrofit schemes for RC structures and local-global consequences. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn.","DOI":"10.1002\/pse.208"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"EC2 (2004). Design of concrete structure, part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. European standard EN 1992-1-1. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, CEN."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance\u2014Part 1-3: Strengthening and Repair of Buildings\u2014European prEN 1998-1-3, European Committee for Standardization."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/13\/5889\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:23:33Z","timestamp":1760163813000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/13\/5889"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["app11135889"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app11135889","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]}}}