{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T04:13:39Z","timestamp":1769746419489,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,15]],"date-time":"2021-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636934400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Large-scale deployments of the Internet of Things (IoT) are adopted for performance improvement and cost reduction in several application domains. The four main IoT application domains covered throughout this article are smart cities, smart transportation, smart healthcare, and smart manufacturing. To increase IoT applicability, data generated by the IoT devices need to be time-stamped and spatially contextualized. LPWANs have become an attractive solution for outdoor localization and received significant attention from the research community due to low-power, low-cost, and long-range communication. In addition, its signals can be used for communication and localization simultaneously. There are different proposed localization methods to obtain the IoT relative location. Each category of these proposed methods has pros and cons that make them useful for specific IoT systems. Nevertheless, there are some limitations in proposed localization methods that need to be eliminated to meet the IoT ecosystem needs completely. This has motivated this work and provided the following contributions: (1) definition of the main requirements and limitations of outdoor localization techniques for the IoT ecosystem, (2) description of the most relevant GNSS-free outdoor localization methods with a focus on LPWAN technologies, (3) survey the most relevant methods used within the IoT ecosystem for improving GNSS-free localization accuracy, and (4) discussion covering the open challenges and future directions within the field. Some of the important open issues that have different requirements in different IoT systems include energy consumption, security and privacy, accuracy, and scalability. This paper provides an overview of research works that have been published between 2018 to July 2021 and made available through the Google Scholar database.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app112210793","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,15]],"date-time":"2021-11-15T20:46:47Z","timestamp":1637009207000},"page":"10793","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["GNSS-Free Outdoor Localization Techniques for Resource-Constrained IoT Architectures: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6374-7780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azin","family":"Moradbeikie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IoT and Signal Processing Research Group, ICT Research Institute, Faculty of Intelligent Systems Engineering and Data Science, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr 7516913817, Iran"},{"name":"ADiT-Lab, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial Nun\u2019 Alvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5103-8311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Keshavarz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IoT and Signal Processing Research Group, ICT Research Institute, Faculty of Intelligent Systems Engineering and Data Science, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr 7516913817, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5396-6517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Habib","family":"Rostami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IoT and Signal Processing Research Group, ICT Research Institute, Faculty of Intelligent Systems Engineering and Data Science, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr 7516913817, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0041-8939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Paiva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ADiT-Lab, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial Nun\u2019 Alvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-7757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e9rgio Ivan","family":"Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ADiT-Lab, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial Nun\u2019 Alvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"},{"name":"IT \u2014 Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Campus Universit\u00e1rio de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Figueiredo e Silva, P., Kaseva, V., and Lohan, E.S. (2018). Wireless positioning in IoT: A look at current and future trends. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082470"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1701057","article-title":"Benefits of positioning-aided communication technology in high-frequency industrial IoT","volume":"56","author":"Lohan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2812300","article-title":"A survey of the state-of-the-art localization techniques and their potentials for autonomous vehicle applications","volume":"5","author":"Kuutti","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2798591","article-title":"Location of Things (LoT): A review and taxonomy of sensors localization in IoT infrastructure","volume":"20","author":"Shit","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23022","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2970118","article-title":"Internet of things (IoT) for next-generation smart systems: A review of current challenges, future trends and prospects for emerging 5G-IoT scenarios","volume":"8","author":"Shafique","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glohj.2019.07.001","article-title":"Smart healthcare: Making medical care more intelligent","volume":"3","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Health J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2013.23","article-title":"Evaluating ambient assisted living solutions: The localization competition","volume":"12","author":"Barsocchi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2017.09.008","article-title":"Vehicle detection in intelligent transportation systems and its applications under varying environments: A review","volume":"69","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrade, R.O., and Yoo, S.G. (2019). A comprehensive study of the use of LoRa in the development of smart cities. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9224753"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.20965\/ijat.2017.p0004","article-title":"\u201cIndustrie 4.0\u201d and smart manufacturing-a review of research issues and application examples","volume":"11","author":"Thoben","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torres, N., Martins, P., Pinto, P., and Lopes, S.I. (2021, January 23\u201326). Smart & Sustainable Mobility on Campus: A secure IoT tracking system for the BIRA Bicycle. Proceedings of the 2021 16th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Chaves, Portugal.","DOI":"10.23919\/CISTI52073.2021.9476495"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Chaojie, G., Jiang, L., and Tan, R. (2018). Lora-based localization: Opportunities and challenges. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naik, N. (2018, January 1\u20133). LPWAN technologies for IoT systems: Choice between ultra narrow band and spread spectrum. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Systems Engineering Symposium (ISSE), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/SysEng.2018.8544414"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, F., Correia, R., Pinho, P., Lopes, S.I., and Carvalho, N.B. (2020). Challenges in Resource-Constrained IoT Devices: Energy and Communication as Critical Success Factors for Future IoT Deployment. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226420"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torres, N., Pinto, P., and Lopes, S.I. (2021). Security Vulnerabilities in LPWANs\u2014An Attack Vector Analysis for the IoT Ecosystem. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11073176"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barsocchi, P., Calabr\u00f2, A., Crivello, A., Daoudagh, S., Furfari, F., Girolami, M., and Marchetti, E. (2020). A Privacy-by-Design Architecture for Indoor Localization Systems. International Conference on the Quality of Information and Communications Technology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58793-2_29"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100334","article-title":"Discovering location based services: A unified approach for heterogeneous indoor localization systems","volume":"13","author":"Furfari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Potorti, F., Torres-Sospedra, J., Quezada-Gaibor, D., Jim\u00e9nez, A.R., Seco, F., P\u00e9rez-Navarro, A., Ortiz, M., Zhu, N., Renaudin, V., and Ichikari, R. (2021). Off-line Evaluation of Indoor Positioning Systems in Different Scenarios: The Experiences from IPIN 2020 Competition. IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bor, M.C., Roedig, U., Voigt, T., and Alonso, J.M. (2016, January 13\u201317). Do LoRa low-power wide-area networks scale?. Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Conference on Modeling, Analysis and Simulation of Wireless and Mobile Systems, Alicante, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/2988287.2989163"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Whitening, S. (2021, November 08). Implementing Data Whitening and CRC Calculation in Software on SX12xx Devices. Available online: https:\/\/www.semtech.com\/uploads\/documents\/AN1200.18_STD.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Semtech, L. (2021, November 08). LoRa Modulation Basics; Technical Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.semtech.com\/uploads\/documents\/an1200.22.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3293534","article-title":"Known and unknown facts of LoRa: Experiences from a large-scale measurement study","volume":"15","author":"Liando","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw. (TOSN)"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aernouts, M., Berkvens, R., Van Vlaenderen, K., and Weyn, M. (2018). Sigfox and LoRaWAN datasets for fingerprint localization in large urban and rural areas. Data, 3.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201803.0139.v1"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.04.162","article-title":"LoRa technology MAC layer operations and Research issues","volume":"130","author":"Kassab","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ert\u00fcrk, M.A., Ayd\u0131n, M.A., B\u00fcy\u00fckakka\u015flar, M.T., and Evirgen, H. (2019). A survey on LoRaWAN architecture, protocol and technologies. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11100216"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35816","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2903157","article-title":"Long Range SigFox Communication Protocol Scalability Analysis Under Large-Scale, High-Density Conditions","volume":"7","author":"Lavric","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mekki, K., Bajic, E., Chaxel, F., and Meyer, F. (2018, January 19\u201323). Overview of Cellular LPWAN Technologies for IoT Deployment: Sigfox, LoRaWAN, and NB-IoT. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PerCom Workshops), Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOMW.2018.8480255"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomez, C., Veras, J.C., Vidal, R., Casals, L., and Paradells, J. (2019). A Sigfox Energy Consumption Model. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030681"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Aldahdouh, K.A., Darabkh, K.A., and Al-Sit, W. (2019, January 21\u201323). A survey of 5G emerging wireless technologies featuring LoRaWAN, Sigfox, NB-IoT and LTE-M. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Wireless Communications Signal Processing and Networking (WiSPNET), Chennai, India."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kabalc\u0131, Y., and Ali, M. (2019, January 12\u201315). Emerging LPWAN technologies for smart environments: An outlook. Proceedings of the 2019 1st Global Power, Energy and Communication Conference (GPECOM), Nevsehir, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/GPECOM.2019.8778626"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauridsen, M., Kov\u00e1cs, I.Z., Mogensen, P., Sorensen, M., and Holst, S. (2016, January 18\u201321). Coverage and capacity analysis of LTE-M and NB-IoT in a rural area. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 84th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2016.7880946"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3019199","article-title":"Toward location-enabled IoT (LE-IoT): IoT positioning techniques, error sources, and error mitigation","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yasmin, R., Pet\u00e4j\u00e4j\u00e4rvi, J., Mikhaylov, K., and Pouttu, A. (2017, January 8\u201313). On the integration of LoRaWAN with the 5G test network. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 28th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2017.8292557"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.12.005","article-title":"A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment","volume":"5","author":"Mekki","year":"2019","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Furfari, F., Crivello, A., Barsocchi, P., Palumbo, F., and Potort\u00ec, F. (October, January 30). What is next for indoor localisation? Taxonomy, protocols, and patterns for advanced location based services. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2019.8911759"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gia, T.N., Qingqing, L., Queralta, J.P., Zou, Z., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2019, January 25\u201327). Edge AI in smart farming IoT: CNNs at the edge and fog computing with LoRa. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE AFRICON, Accra, Ghana.","DOI":"10.1109\/AFRICON46755.2019.9134049"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Queralta, J.P., Gia, T.N., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2019, January 1\u20133). Edge-AI in LoRa-based health monitoring: Fall detection system with fog computing and LSTM recurrent neural networks. Proceedings of the 2019 42nd International Conference on Telecommunications and Signal Processing (TSP), Budapest, Hungary.","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2019.8768883"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2020.102788","article-title":"Performance comparison of container orchestration platforms with low cost devices in the fog, assisting Internet of Things applications","volume":"169","author":"Cobos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Zhuang, Y., Hu, X., Gao, Z., Hu, J., Chen, L., He, Z., Pei, L., Chen, K., and Wang, M. (2020). Location-Enabled IoT (LE-IoT): A Survey of Positioning Techniques, Error Sources, and Mitigation. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3019199"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2543581.2543592","article-title":"From RSSI to CSI: Indoor localization via channel response","volume":"46","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv. (CSUR)"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mackey, A., and Spachos, P. (May, January 29). LoRa-based localization system for emergency services in GPS-less environments. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2019-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2019.8845189"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Barsocchi, P. (2012, November 09). Channel Models for TerrestrialWireless Communications: A Survey. CNR-ISTI Techical Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.csd.uoc.gr\/~hy439\/lectures11\/2006-TR-16.physical_layer_tutorial.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2014.10.003","article-title":"Distance estimation using RSSI and particle filter","volume":"55","author":"Malajner","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISA Trans."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"8613","article-title":"Reloc: Hybrid rssi-and phase-based relative uhf-rfid tag localization with cots devices","volume":"69","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9030","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2021.3055677","article-title":"A New TOA Localization and Synchronization System with Virtually Synchronized Periodic Asymmetric Ranging Network","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BniLam, N., Joosens, D., Aernouts, M., Steckel, J., and Weyn, M. (2020). LoRay: AoA Estimation System for Long Range Communication Networks. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun.","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3038565"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Burghal, D., Ravi, A.T., Rao, V., Alghafis, A.A., and Molisch, A.F. (2020). A Comprehensive Survey of Machine Learning Based Localization with Wireless Signals. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janssen, T., BniLam, N., Aernouts, M., Berkvens, R., and Weyn, M. (2020). LoRa 2.4 GHz Communication Link and Range. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164366"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s12243-020-00789-w","article-title":"A study of the LoRa signal propagation in forest, urban, and suburban environments","volume":"75","author":"Ferreira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2448632","article-title":"A survey of fingerprint-based outdoor localization","volume":"18","author":"Vo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaffo, F., Saravia, P., and Kemper, G. (2019, January 2\u20134). A Wireless Communication Device Based on LoRa Module Aimed at Detecting Rectilinear Proximity Between Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2019 Congreso Internacional de Innovaci\u00f3n y Tendencias en Ingenieria (CONIITI), Bogota, Colombia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CONIITI48476.2019.8960798"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2883728","article-title":"Low-power wide area network technologies for internet-of-things: A comparative review","volume":"6","author":"Ikpehai","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plets, D., Podevijn, N., Trogh, J., Martens, L., and Joseph, W. (2018, January 24\u201327). Experimental performance evaluation of outdoor tdoa and rss positioning in a public lora network. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Nantes, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2018.8533761"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anjum, M., Khan, M.A., Hassan, S.A., Mahmood, A., and Gidlund, M. (2019, January 24\u201328). Analysis of RSSI fingerprinting in LoRa networks. Proceedings of the 2019 15th InternationalWireless Communications & Mobile Computing Conference (IWCMC), Tangier, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWCMC.2019.8766468"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anagnostopoulos, G.G., and Kalousis, A. (October, January 29). A reproducible analysis of RSSI fingerprinting for outdoor localization using sigfox: Preprocessing and hyperparameter tuning. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2019.8911792"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zafari, F., Papapanagiotou, I., and Hacker, T.J. (2018, January 20\u201324). A novel Bayesian filtering based algorithm for RSSI-based indoor localization. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8423012"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12381","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2936764","article-title":"A Wiener-based RSSI localization algorithm exploiting modulation diversity in LoRa networks","volume":"19","author":"Savazzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biswas, D., Barai, S., and Sau, B. (2021, January 11\u201312). Improved RSSI based Vehicle Localization using Base Station. Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Innovative Trends in Information Technology (ICITIIT), Kottayam, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITIIT51526.2021.9399596"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11778","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2940272","article-title":"Rssi-based lora localization systems for large-scale indoor and outdoor environments","volume":"68","author":"Lam","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam, K.H., Cheung, C.C., and Lee, W.C. (2018, January 23\u201327). New rssi-based lora localization algorithms for very noisy outdoor environment. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 42nd Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC), Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPSAC.2018.10340"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16004","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3053144","article-title":"Room-Level Localization System Based on LoRa Backscatters","volume":"9","author":"Lazaro","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Hashim, I.S.M., Al-Hourani, A., and Rowe, W.S. (2020, January 14\u201316). Machine Learning Performance for Radio Localization under Correlated Shadowing. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 14th International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication Systems (ICSPCS), Adelaide, SA, Australia."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daramouskas, I., Kapoulas, V., and Paraskevas, M. (2019, January 15\u201317). Using neural networks for RSSI location estimation in LoRa networks. Proceedings of the 2019 10th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications (IISA), Patras, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IISA.2019.8900742"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purohit, J., Wang, X., Mao, S., Sun, X., and Yang, C. (2020, January 8\u201310). Fingerprinting-based indoor and outdoor localization with LoRa and deep learning. Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2020\u20142020 IEEE Global Communications Conference, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM42002.2020.9322261"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/LSENS.2017.2787651","article-title":"A fingerprint method for indoor localization using autoencoder based deep extreme learning machine","volume":"2","author":"Khatab","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robyns, P., Marin, E., Lamotte, W., Quax, P., Singel\u00e9e, D., and Preneel, B. (2017, January 18\u201320). Physical-layer fingerprinting of LoRa devices using supervised and zero-shot learning. Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3098243.3098267"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.S., Hsu, C.S., Huang, C.Y., and Hung, H.M. (2019, January 28\u201330). Outdoor Localization for LoRaWans Using Semi-Supervised Transfer Learning with Grid Segmentation. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE VTS Asia Pacific Wireless Communications Symposium (APWCS), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTS-APWCS.2019.8851646"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.S., Hsu, C.S., and Huang, C.Y. (2021). A Semi-Supervised Transfer Learning with Grid Segmentation for Outdoor Localization over LoRaWans. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082640"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delafontaine, V., Schiano, F., Cocco, G., Rusu, A., and Floreano, D. (2020). Drone-aided Localization in LoRa IoT Networks. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9196869"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1109\/IOTM.0001.2000019","article-title":"RSSI Fingerprinting-based Localization Using Machine Learning in LoRa Networks","volume":"3","author":"Anjum","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things Mag."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33652","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2903880","article-title":"Regression-based estimation of individual errors in fingerprinting localization","volume":"7","author":"Lemic","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3461012","article-title":"SateLoc: A Virtual Fingerprinting Approach to Outdoor LoRa Localization using Satellite Images","volume":"17","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw. (TOSN)"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, W., Chang, Y.S., Jung, Y., and Song, J. (2018). Low-Power LoRa signal-based outdoor positioning using fingerprint Algorithm. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7110440"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podevijn, N., Trogh, J., Karaagac, A., Haxhibeqiri, J., Hoebeke, J., Martens, L., Suanet, P., Hendrikse, K., Plets, D., and Joseph, W. (2018, January 9\u201313). TDoA-based outdoor positioning in a public LoRa network. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP 2018), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp.2018.0574"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pospisil, J., Fujdiak, R., and Mikhaylov, K. (2020). Investigation of the Performance of TDoA-Based Localization Over LoRaWAN in Theory and Practice. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195464"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2019.102067","article-title":"Indoor localization using time difference of arrival with UWB signals and unsynchronized devices","volume":"99","author":"Ezpeleta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ad. Hoc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2014.09.003","article-title":"Accurate smartphone indoor positioning using a WSN infrastructure and non-invasive audio for TDoA estimation","volume":"20","author":"Lopes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElSabaa, A.A., Ward, M., and Wu, W. (2019, January 5\u20137). Hybrid Localization techniques in LoRa-based WSN. Proceedings of the 2019 25th International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC), Lancaster, UK.","DOI":"10.23919\/IConAC.2019.8895196"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrino, F., Janka, A., Abou Khaled, O., and Mugellini, E. (2019, January 14). LoRaLoc: Machine learning-based fingerprinting for outdoor geolocation using LoRa. Proceedings of the 2019 6th Swiss Conference on Data Science (SDS), Bern, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/SDS.2019.000-2"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Leitinger, E., and Tufvesson, F. (2020, January 1\u20134). RSS-based localization of low-power IoT devices exploiting AoA and range information. Proceedings of the 2020 54th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEECONF51394.2020.9443542"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, K., Chen, Y., He, S., Shi, Z., Chen, J., and Tao, Z. (2019, January 9\u201313). ILoc: A low-cost low-power outdoor localization system for internet of things. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM38437.2019.9013972"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Zeng, J., He, S., Shi, Z., Chen, J., and Tao, Z. (2020, January 7\u201311). MAGIC: A Lightweight System for Localizing Multiple Devices Via A Single LoRa Gateway. Proceedings of the ICC 2020\u20142020 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC40277.2020.9149280"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2020.100236","article-title":"TDAoA: A combination of TDoA and AoA localization with LoRaWAN","volume":"11","author":"Aernouts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Internet Things"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119869","article-title":"Industry 4.0, digitization, and opportunities for sustainability","volume":"252","author":"Ghobakhloo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2018.02.034","article-title":"Industry 4.0\u2014A glimpse","volume":"20","author":"Vaidya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2019.01.004","article-title":"Industry 4.0 technologies: Implementation patterns in manufacturing companies","volume":"210","author":"Frank","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u0103tru, G.C., Tranc\u0103, D.C., Costea, C.M., Rosner, D., and Rughini\u015f, R.V. (2019, January 10\u201312). LoRA based, low power remote monitoring and control solution for Industry 4.0 factories and facilities. Proceedings of the 2019 18th RoEduNet Conference: Networking in Education and Research (RoEduNet), Galati, Romania.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROEDUNET.2019.8909499"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3390\/designs5010017","article-title":"Smart Monitoring and Controlling of Appliances Using LoRa Based IoT System","volume":"5","author":"Ahsan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Designs"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leonardi, L., Battaglia, F., Patti, G., and Bello, L.L. (2018, January 21\u201323). Industrial LoRa: A novel medium access strategy for LoRa in industry 4.0 applications. Proceedings of the IECON 2018\u201444th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2018.8591568"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rohit, S., Jamkhandi, A.G., Rao, A., Krishna, V., Naik, A., and Parathodiyil, M. (2018, January 28\u201329). IoT based identification and assessment of industrial assets. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Computing, Power and Communication Technologies (GUCON), Greater Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/GUCON.2018.8675004"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"2","article-title":"Industrial Parameters Monitoring with Lora Technology in next Generation Wireless Communications","volume":"32","author":"SV","year":"2021","journal-title":"Turk. J. Physiother. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3758","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2844296","article-title":"An overview of Internet of Things (IoT) and data analytics in agriculture: Benefits and challenges","volume":"5","author":"Elijah","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swain, M., Zimon, D., Singh, R., Hashmi, M.F., Rashid, M., and Hakak, S. (2021). LoRa-LBO: An Experimental Analysis of LoRa Link Budget Optimization in Custom Build IoT Test Bed for Agriculture 4.0. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11050820"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2828867","article-title":"LoRaWAN: Evaluation of link-and system-level performance","volume":"5","author":"Feltrin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2020.10.009","article-title":"A study of LoRaWAN protocol performance for IoT applications in smart agriculture","volume":"164","author":"Miles","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.5937\/telfor2002092I","article-title":"Approach to implementation of local navigation of mobile robotic systems in agriculture with the aid of radio modules","volume":"12","author":"Iakovlev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Telfor J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Priyanta, I.F., Golatowski, F., Schulz, T., and Timmermann, D. (2019, January 14\u201317). Evaluation of LoRa technology for vehicle and asset tracking in smart harbors. Proceedings of the IECON 2019\u201445th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2019.8927566"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez-Iborra, R., G Lia\u00f1o, I., Simoes, C., Cou\u00f1ago, E., and Skarmeta, A.F. (2019). Tracking and monitoring system based on LoRa technology for lightweight boats. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8010015"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2015.2417684","article-title":"An IoT-aware architecture for smart healthcare systems","volume":"2","author":"Catarinucci","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26521","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2775180","article-title":"Internet of things for smart healthcare: Technologies, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"5","author":"Baker","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Misran, N., Islam, M.S., Beng, G.K., Amin, N., and Islam, M.T. (2019, January 9\u201310). IoT based health monitoring system with LoRa communication technology. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Informatics (ICEEI), Bandung, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEEI47359.2019.8988869"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahidul Islam, M., Islam, M.T., Almutairi, A.F., Beng, G.K., Misran, N., and Amin, N. (2019). Monitoring of the human body signal through the Internet of Things (IoT) based LoRa wireless network system. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9091884"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valach, A., and Macko, D. (2018, January 15\u201316). Exploration of the LoRa technology utilization possibilities in healthcare IoT devices. Proceedings of the 2018 16th International Conference on Emerging eLearning Technologies and Applications (ICETA), Stary Smokovec, Slovakia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICETA.2018.8572032"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cicirelli, G., Marani, R., Petitti, A., Milella, A., and D\u2019Orazio, T. (2021). Ambient Assisted Living: A Review of Technologies, Methodologies and Future Perspectives for Healthy Aging of Population. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21103549"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandes, C.D., Depari, A., Sisinni, E., Ferrari, P., Flammini, A., Rinaldi, S., and Pasetti, M. (July, January 1). Hybrid indoor and outdoor localization for elderly care applications with LoRaWAN. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Bari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA49120.2020.9137286"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tayeh, G.B., Azar, J., Makhoul, A., Guyeux, C., and Demerjian, J. (July, January 29). A wearable lora-based emergency system for remote safety monitoring. Proceedings of the 2020 International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing (IWCMC), Limassol, Cyprus.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWCMC48107.2020.9148359"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehda, P.S., Jayram, S., Abu-Mahfouz, A.M., and Ouahada, K. (2019, January 5\u20136). A sea rescue operation system based on LoRa. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Advances in Big Data, Computing and Data Communication Systems (icABCD), Winterton, South Africa.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICABCD.2019.8851047"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Centelles, R.P., Freitag, F., Meseguer, R., Navarro, L., Ochoa, S.F., and Santos, R.M. (2019, January 2\u20135). A lora-based communication system for coordinated response in an earthquake aftermath. Proceedings of the Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute Proceedings, Toledo, Spain.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2019031073"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2020.07.040","article-title":"LoRaMoto: A communication system to provide safety awareness among civilians after an earthquake","volume":"115","author":"Centelles","year":"2021","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"H\u00f6chst, J., Baumg\u00e4rtner, L., Kuntke, F., Penning, A., Sterz, A., and Freisleben, B. (2020, January 24\u201327). Lora-based device-to-device smartphone communication for crisis scenarios. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management (ISCRAM), Blacksburg, VA, USA."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sciullo, L., Fossemo, F., Trotta, A., and Di Felice, M. (2018, January 9\u201313). Locate: A lora-based mobile emergency management system. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2018.8647177"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2019.101993","article-title":"Design and performance evaluation of a LoRa-based mobile emergency management system (LOCATE)","volume":"96","author":"Sciullo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ad. Hoc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3017044","article-title":"LoRa System for Search and Rescue: Path-Loss Models and Procedures in Mountain Scenarios","volume":"8","author":"Bianco","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bianco, G.M., Mejia-Aguilar, A., and Marrocco, G. (September, January 29). Radio wave propagation of LoRa systems in mountains for Search and Rescue operations. Proceedings of the 2020 XXXIIIrd General Assembly and Scientific Symposium of the International Union of Radio Science, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.23919\/URSIGASS49373.2020.9232231"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zantalis, F., Koulouras, G., Karabetsos, S., and Kandris, D. (2019). A review of machine learning and IoT in smart transportation. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11040094"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dirnfeld, R., Flammini, F., Marrone, S., Nardone, R., and Vittorini, V. (2020, January 20\u201323). Low-power wide-area networks in intelligent transportation: Review and opportunities for smart-railways. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 23rd International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC)E, Rhodes, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC45102.2020.9294535"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrero-Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, J., Zeadally, S., and Contreras-Castillo, J. (2018). Sensor technologies for intelligent transportation systems. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041212"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haque, K.F., Abdelgawad, A., Yanambaka, V.P., and Yelamarthi, K. (2020). Lora architecture for v2x communication: An experimental evaluation with vehicles on the move. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236876"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Han, S., Yang, L., Wang, F.Y., and Zhang, H. (2018, January 26\u201330). LoRa on the move: Performance evaluation of LoRa in V2X communications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), Changshu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2018.8500655"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012010","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/676\/1\/012010","article-title":"Integration of LoRa-Cellular: Design and Implementation of Data Communication in Vehicle Tracking Systems","volume":"Volume 676","author":"Ilham","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurado Murillo, F., Quintero Yoshioka, J.S., Varela L\u00f3pez, A.D., Salazar-Cabrera, R., Pach\u00f3n de la Cruz, \u00c1., and Madrid Molina, J.M. (2020). Experimental Evaluation of LoRa in Transit Vehicle Tracking Service Based on Intelligent Transportation Systems and IoT. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9111950"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, P., Zhang, Z., Wei, L., and Zhao, Y. (2018, January 12\u201314). A real-time bus positioning system based on LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 2018 2nd International Conference on Smart Grid and Smart Cities (ICSGSC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSGSC.2018.8541282"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boshita, T., Suzuki, H., and Matsumoto, Y. (2018, January 4\u20137). IoT-based bus location system using LoRaWAN. Proceedings of the 2018 21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2018.8569920"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salazar-Cabrera, R., Pach\u00f3n de la Cruz, \u00c1., and Madrid Molina, J.M. (2019). Proof of concept of an iot-based public vehicle tracking system, using lora (long range) and intelligent transportation system (its) services. J. Comput. Netw. Commun., 2019.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9198157"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102301","article-title":"Enabling technologies and sustainable smart cities","volume":"61","author":"Ahad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.01.053","article-title":"Towards sustainable smart cities: A review of trends, architectures, components, and open challenges in smart cities","volume":"38","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzortzakis, K., Papafotis, K., and Sotiriadis, P.P. (2017, January 17\u201318). Wireless self powered environmental monitoring system for smart cities based on LoRa. Proceedings of the 2017 Panhellenic Conference on Electronics and Telecommunications (PACET), Xanthi, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/PACET.2017.8259970"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emmanuel, A.L., Fernando, X., Hussain, F., and Farjow, W. (2020, January 25\u201328). Optimization of spreading factor distribution in high density LoRa networks. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), Antwerp, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2020-Spring48590.2020.9129498"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3005830","article-title":"Long-term monitoring of smart city assets via Internet of Things and low-power wide-area networks","volume":"8","author":"Deese","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Croce, D., Garlisi, D., Giuliano, F., Valvo, A.L., Mangione, S., and Tinnirello, I. (2019, January 2\u20134). Performance of lora for bike-sharing systems. Proceedings of the 2019 AEIT International Conference of Electrical and Electronic Technologies for Automotive (AEIT AUTOMOTIVE), Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.23919\/EETA.2019.8804519"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, D.F., Depari, A., Ferrari, P., Flammini, A., Rinaldi, S., and Sisinni, E. (2018, January 12\u201314). On the feasibility of mobile sensing and tracking applications based on LPWAN. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2018.8336765"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, A.E., Ortiz, F.M., Almeida, T.T.d., and Costa, L.H.M. (2020). A Visitor Assistance System Based on LoRa for Nature Forest Parks. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9040696"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mikhaylov, K., Stusek, M., Masek, P., Petrov, V., Petajajarvi, J., Andreev, S., Pokorny, J., Hosek, J., Pouttu, A., and Koucheryavy, Y. (2018, January 20\u201324). Multi-rat lpwan in smart cities: Trial of lorawan and nb-iot integration. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8422979"},{"key":"ref_134","unstructured":"Dinh, T.D., and Kirichek, R. (2018, January 5\u20139). Method for organizing mesh topology based on LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 2018 10th International Congress on Ultra Modern Telecommunications and Control Systems and Workshops (ICUMT), Moscow, Russia."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berto, R., Napoletano, P., and Savi, M. (2021). A LoRa-Based Mesh Network for Peer-to-Peer Long-Range Communication. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21134314"},{"key":"ref_136","unstructured":"Kisel, V., Kirichek, R., Koucheryavy, A., and Shestakov, A. (2021, January 7\u201310). Evaluation of A Mesh Network based on LoRa Technology. Proceedings of the 2021 23rd International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), PyeongChang, Korea."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6800","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3036087","article-title":"Context-Aware Collaborative Intelligence with Spatio-Temporal In-Sensor-Analytics for Efficient Communication in a Large-Area IoT Testbed","volume":"8","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012027","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/396\/1\/012027","article-title":"Security mechanisms and Vulnerabilities in LPWAN","volume":"Volume 396","author":"Chacko","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2018.2864681","article-title":"Scalability analysis of a LoRa network under imperfect orthogonality","volume":"15","author":"Mahmood","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/22\/10793\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:30:44Z","timestamp":1760167844000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/22\/10793"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,15]]},"references-count":139,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["app112210793"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app112210793","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,15]]}}}