{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T14:36:15Z","timestamp":1776090975888,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638316800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/50021\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50021\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Growing human activity has led to a critical rise in global energy consumption; since the current main sources of energy production are still fossil fuels, this is an industry linked to the generation of harmful byproducts that contribute to environmental deterioration and climate change. One pivotal element with the potential to take over fossil fuels as a global energy vector is renewable hydrogen; but, for this to happen, reliable solutions must be developed for its carbon-free production. The objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive review on several hydrogen production technologies, mainly focusing on water splitting by green-electrolysis, integrated on hydrogen\u2019s value chain. The review further deepened into three leading electrolysis methods, depending on the type of electrolyzer used\u2014alkaline, proton-exchange membrane, and solid oxide\u2014assessing their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Based on the conclusions of this study, further developments in applications like the efficient production of renewable hydrogen will require the consideration of other types of electrolysis (like microbial cells), other sets of materials such as in anion-exchange membrane water electrolysis, and even the use of artificial intelligence and neural networks to help design, plan, and control the operation of these new types of systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app112311363","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T23:22:28Z","timestamp":1638314548000},"page":"11363","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":207,"title":["Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with a Focus on Green-Electrolysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8168-5336","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Vidas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3108-8880","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC-ID\/IST, University of Lisbon, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Sieminski, A. (2014). International Energy Outlook, Energy Information Administration (EIA)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"British Petroleum (2018). BP Statistical Review of World Energy, BP Statistical Review. [67th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2012.10.046","article-title":"Depletion of fossil fuels and anthropogenic climate change\u2014A review","volume":"52","author":"Tang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(NOAA Resarch News, 2021). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Carbon Dioxide Peaks Near 420 Parts per Million at Mauna Loa Observatory, NOAA Resarch News."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"53","article-title":"The Anthropocene equation","volume":"4","author":"Gaffney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anthr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Levitus, S., Antonov, J.I., Boyer, T.P., Baranova, O.K., Garc\u00eda, H.E., Locarnini, R.A., Mishonov, A.V., Reagan, J.R., Seidov, D., and Yarosh, E. (2021). NCEI Ocean Heat Content, Temperature Anomalies, Salinity Anomalies, Thermosteric Sea Level Anomalies, Halosteric Sea Level Anomalies, and Total Steric Sea Level Anomalies from 1955 to Present Calculated from In Situ Oceanographic Subsurface Profile Data, National Centers for Environmental Information (NOAA)."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL087291","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL087291","article-title":"Continuity of Ice Sheet Mass Loss in Greenland and Antarctica from the GRACE and GRACE Follow-on Missions","volume":"47","author":"Velicogna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL061957","article-title":"Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO2 record from 800 to 600 kyr before present","volume":"42","author":"Bereiter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D08101","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD017187","article-title":"Quantifying uncertainties in global and regional temperature change using an ensemble of observational estimates: The HadCRUT4 data set","volume":"117","author":"Morice","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Stocker, T., Qin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. (2013). IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.5194\/esd-12-601-2021","article-title":"Interacting tipping elements increase risk of climate domino effects under global warming","volume":"12","author":"Wunderling","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03629-6","article-title":"Amazonia as a carbon source linked to deforestation and climate change","volume":"595","author":"Gatti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111180","article-title":"Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies, applications, trends and challenges","volume":"146","author":"Yue","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnlest.2021.100080","article-title":"Progress and prospects of hydrogen production: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Electron. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.02.041","article-title":"Economic feasibility studies of high pressure PEM water electrolysis for distributed H2 refueling stations","volume":"162","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3389\/fenrg.2016.00011","article-title":"The Hydrogen Grand Challenge","volume":"4","author":"Borgschulte","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cattod.2008.08.039","article-title":"An overview of hydrogen production technologies","volume":"139","author":"Holladay","year":"2009","journal-title":"Catal. Today"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2012.08.056","article-title":"Ni-based catalysts for reforming of methane with CO2","volume":"37","author":"Damyanova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"80","article-title":"Hydrogen production by water electrolysis: A review of alkaline water electrolysis, PEM water electrolysis and high temperature water electrolysis","volume":"4","author":"Rashid","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"European Commission (2020). Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-Neutral Europe, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Ambiente e A\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica (2020). EN-H2 - Estrat\u00e9gia Nacional para o Hidrog\u00e9nio, Minist\u00e9rio do Ambiente e A\u00e7\u00e3o Clim\u00e1tica."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2020.113332","article-title":"Technical-economic analysis of a hydrogen production facility for power-to-gas and hydrogen mobility under different renewable sources in Southern Italy","volume":"223","author":"Fragiacomo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2020.113650","article-title":"Towards a new mobility concept for regional trains and hydrogen infrastructure","volume":"228","author":"Piraino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/MELE.2020.3047173","article-title":"Hydrogen Electric Airplanes: A Disruptive Technological Path to Clean up the Aviation Sector","volume":"9","author":"Noland","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Electrif. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2020.117792","article-title":"Multi-objective optimisation of power-to-mobility in decentralised multi-energy systems","volume":"205","author":"Murray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.05.122","article-title":"Impact of hydrogen refueling configurations and market parameters on the refueling cost of hydrogen","volume":"42","author":"Reddi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aziz, M., Wijayanta, A.T., and Nandiyanto, A.B.D. (2020). Ammonia as effective hydrogen storage: A review on production, storage and utilization. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13123062"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhaskar, A., Assadi, M., and Nikpey Somehsaraei, H. (2020). Decarbonization of the iron and steel industry with direct reduction of iron ore with green hydrogen. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13030758"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1007\/s00501-020-00968-1","article-title":"Green hydrogen as decarbonization element for the steel industry","volume":"165","author":"Sasiain","year":"2020","journal-title":"BHM Berg- und H\u00fcttenm\u00e4nnische Monatshefte"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozzi, E., Minuto, F.D., Lanzini, A., and Leone, P. (2020). Green synthetic fuels: Renewable routes for the conversion of non-fossil feedstocks into gaseous fuels and their end uses. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13020420"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-020-0891-0","article-title":"The hydrogen solution?","volume":"10","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.11.185","article-title":"Size optimization of a hybrid photovoltaic\/fuel cell grid connected power system including hydrogen storage","volume":"46","author":"Okundamiya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.09.117","article-title":"Assessment of hydrogen supply solutions for hydrogen fueling station: A Shanghai case study","volume":"45","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/S1006-706X(15)30069-8","article-title":"Development and Application of Hydrogen Storage","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Iron Steel Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2008.05.047","article-title":"Potential importance of hydrogen as a future solution to environmental and transportation problems","volume":"33","author":"Balat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.10.102","article-title":"Recent progress in the use of hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion engines","volume":"39","author":"Verhelst","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.07.015","article-title":"Effect of operating parameters on hydrogen production by electrolysis of water","volume":"42","author":"Chakik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.03.178","article-title":"Hydrogen storage: Recent improvements and industrial perspectives","volume":"42","author":"Barthelemy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.03.167","article-title":"Process optimization for large-scale hydrogen liquefaction","volume":"42","author":"Cardella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.10.158","article-title":"Analysis and assessment of an advanced hydrogen liquefaction system","volume":"43","author":"Hammad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2010.09.051","article-title":"Hydrogen storage for off-grid power supply","volume":"36","author":"Gray","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.06.121","article-title":"Power-to-ammonia in future North European 100% renewable power and heat system","volume":"43","author":"Kiviluoma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.03.063","article-title":"Large-scale storage of hydrogen","volume":"44","author":"Andersson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145432","article-title":"Revisiting the role of steam methane reforming with CO2 capture and storage for long-term hydrogen production","volume":"771","author":"Dufour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hienuki, S. (2017). Environmental and Socio-Economic Analysis of Naphtha Reforming Hydrogen Energy Using Input-Output Tables: A Case Study from Japan. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9081376"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.07.079","article-title":"Comparative life cycle energy consumption, carbon emissions and economic costs of hydrogen production from coke oven gas and coal gasification","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109547","article-title":"Biorenewable hydrogen production through biomass gasification: A review and future prospects","volume":"186","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.120136","article-title":"Insights on biological hydrogen production routes and potential microorganisms for high hydrogen yield","volume":"291","author":"Sivaramakrishnan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iulianelli, A., and Basile, A. (2020). Hydrogen production by electrolysis. Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-) Membranes, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816778-6.00005-9"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(99)00364-2","article-title":"Water electrolysis: Who first?","volume":"476","author":"Trasatti","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Abe, I. (2009). Alkaline Water Electrolysis. Energy Carriers and Conversion Systems, UNESCO\u2013Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.09.033","article-title":"Graphene oxide modified non-noble metal electrode for alkaline anion exchange membrane water electrolyzers","volume":"38","author":"Seetharaman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-3199(97)00069-4","article-title":"Evaluation of the Zirfon\u00ae separator for use in alkaline water electrolysis and Ni-H2 batteries","volume":"23","author":"Vermeiren","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"1035","article-title":"Synthesis of polysulfone and zirconium oxide coated asbestos composite separators for alkaline water electrolysis","volume":"3","author":"Ramakrishna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2015.04.066","article-title":"Composite membranes for alkaline electrolysis based on polysulfone and mineral fillers","volume":"291","author":"Burnat","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"McPhy (2021, July 06). Augmented McLyzer. Available online: https:\/\/mcphy.com\/en\/equipment-services\/electrolyzers\/augmented\/."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.11.115","article-title":"The investment costs of electrolysis\u2013A comparison of cost studies from the past 30 years","volume":"43","author":"Saba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2427329","article-title":"Batteries with Solid Ion Exchange Electrolytes","volume":"106","author":"Grubb","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2427622","article-title":"Batteries with Solid Ion-Exchange Membrane Electrolytes","volume":"107","author":"Grubb","year":"1960","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/s41918-018-0014-z","article-title":"Recent progresses in electrocatalysts for water electrolysis","volume":"1","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Electrochem. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2010.08.055","article-title":"The effects of ionomer content on PEM water electrolyser membrane electrode assembly performance","volume":"35","author":"Xu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2016.01.012","article-title":"An overview of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer for hydrogen production: Modeling and mass transport","volume":"309","author":"Tijani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.09.125","article-title":"A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production","volume":"231","author":"Ju","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.09.044","article-title":"A comparative overview of hydrogen production processes","volume":"67","author":"Nikolaidis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2005.04.038","article-title":"Pure hydrogen production by PEM electrolysis for hydrogen energy","volume":"31","author":"Grigoriev","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2009.09.015","article-title":"PEM water electrolyzers: From electrocatalysis to stack development","volume":"35","author":"Millet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calado, G., and Castro, R. (2021). Hydrogen Production from Offshore Wind Parks: Current Situation and Future Perspectives. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11125561"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2004.09.003","article-title":"PEM electrolysis for production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources","volume":"78","author":"Barbir","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2009.05.090","article-title":"Study of IrxRu1-xO2 oxides as anodic electrocatalysts for solid polymer electrolyte water electrolysis","volume":"54","author":"Cheng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2005.09.050","article-title":"Oxygen and chlorine evolution on RuO2+TiO2+CeO2+Nb2O5 mixed oxide electrodes","volume":"51","author":"Santana","year":"2006","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2011.01.067","article-title":"Nano-crystalline RuxSn1-xO2 powder catalysts for oxygen evolution reaction in proton exchange membrane water electrolysers","volume":"36","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4507","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(99)00182-6","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of Ti\/RuO2-Nb2O5 electrodes obtained by polymeric precursor method","volume":"44","author":"Terezo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2018.01.141","article-title":"Surface determination and electrochemical behavior of IrO2-RuO2-SiO2 ternary oxide coatings in oxygen evolution reaction application","volume":"264","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.10.045","article-title":"Future cost and performance of water electrolysis: An expert elicitation study","volume":"42","author":"Schmidt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"688","article-title":"Cost analysis of hydrogen production by electrolysis of renewable energy","volume":"9","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Energy Storage Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2020.110255","article-title":"Increasing the efficiency of hydrogen production from solar powered water electrolysis","volume":"135","author":"Burton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2009.11.002","article-title":"Recent progress in alkaline water electrolysis for hydrogen production and applications","volume":"36","author":"Zeng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2012.05.011","article-title":"Advanced alkaline water electrolysis","volume":"82","author":"Marini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151","article-title":"A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis","volume":"38","author":"Carmo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/0360-3199(85)90181-8","article-title":"High-temperature electrolysis of water vapor\u2014Status of development and perspectives for application","volume":"10","author":"Erdle","year":"1985","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2008.07.120","article-title":"High temperature water electrolysis in solid oxide cells","volume":"33","author":"Brisse","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2008.12.132","article-title":"Preparation of LSM\u2013YSZ composite powder for anode of solid oxide electrolysis cell and its activation mechanism","volume":"190","author":"Liang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2016.09.001","article-title":"Electrocatalysts for the generation of hydrogen, oxygen and synthesis gas","volume":"58","author":"Sapountzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-019-0388-2","article-title":"Mixed proton and electron conducting double perovskite anodes for stable and efficient tubular proton ceramic electrolysers","volume":"18","author":"Strandbakke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-019-0353-y","article-title":"Electrifying chemistry with protonic cells","volume":"4","author":"Serra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, H., Wu, W., Jiang, C., Ding, Y., Bian, W., Hu, B., Singh, P., Orme, C.J., Wang, L., and Zhang, Y. (2020). Self-sustainable protonic ceramic electrochemical cells using a triple conducting electrode for hydrogen and power production. Nat. Commun., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15677-z"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"155","article-title":"Modeling and Techno-Economic Analysis of High Temperature Electrolysis Systems Using Protonic Ceramics","volume":"MA2021-03","author":"Thatte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-019-0333-2","article-title":"Highly efficient reversible protonic ceramic electrochemical cells for power generation and fuel production","volume":"4","author":"Duan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4165","article-title":"Eliminating degradation in solid oxide electrochemical cells by reversible operation","volume":"14","author":"Graves","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.12.019","article-title":"Recent advances in high temperature electrolysis using solid oxide fuel cells: A review","volume":"203","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.09.045","article-title":"A review and comprehensive analysis of degradation mechanisms of solid oxide electrolysis cells","volume":"38","author":"Brisse","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B1209","DOI":"10.1149\/1.3447752","article-title":"Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells: Degradation at High Current Densities","volume":"157","author":"Knibbe","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.09.003","article-title":"Current status of water electrolysis for energy storage, grid balancing and sector coupling via power-to-gas and power-to-liquids: A review","volume":"82","author":"Buttler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehner, M., Tichler, R., Steinm\u00fcller, H., and Koppe, M. (2014). Power-to-Gas: Technology and Business Models, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-03995-4"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Bertuccioli, L., Chan, A., Hart, D., Lehner, F., Madden, B., and Standen, E. (2014). Study on Development of Water Electrolysis in the EU. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, Element Energy."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"54","article-title":"Synthesis of titanium (IV) oxide composite membrane for hydrogen production through alkaline water electrolysis","volume":"25","author":"Ramakrishna","year":"2018","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2011.2156750","article-title":"Hydrogen Production From Water Electrolysis: Current Status and Future Trends","volume":"100","author":"Ursua","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10800-012-0490-5","article-title":"Polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis: Status of technologies and potential applications in combination with renewable power sources","volume":"43","author":"Siracusano","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-2067(17)62949-8","article-title":"Water electrolysis based on renewable energy for hydrogen production","volume":"39","author":"Chi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-1481(00)00199-3","article-title":"Utilization of solar\u2013hydrogen energy in the UAE to maintain its share in the world energy market for the 21st century","volume":"24","author":"Kazim","year":"2001","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-004-0516-x","article-title":"Hydrogen storage methods","volume":"91","year":"2004","journal-title":"Naturwissenschaften (Sci. Nat.)"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2010.03.136","article-title":"Steam reforming of propane in a fluidized bed membrane reactor for hydrogen production","volume":"35","author":"Rakib","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1007\/s11814-014-0359-x","article-title":"Hydrogen selectivity and permeance effect on the water gas shift reaction (WGSR) in a membrane reactor","volume":"32","author":"Lim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Korean J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.12.153","article-title":"Economic evaluation with sensitivity and profitability analysis for hydrogen production from water electrolysis in Korea","volume":"42","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2010.05.020","article-title":"Exergoenvironmental analysis of a steam methane reforming process for hydrogen production","volume":"36","author":"Boyano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Tsatsaronis, G., and Morosuk, T. (November, January 31). A General Exergy-Based Method for Combining a Cost Analysis With an Environmental Impact Analysis: Part I\u2014Theoretical Development. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Tsatsaronis, G., and Morosuk, T. (November, January 31). A General Exergy-Based Method for Combining a Cost Analysis With an Environmental Impact Analysis: Part II\u2014Application to a Cogeneration System. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcat.2008.11.007","article-title":"Effect of boron on the stability of Ni catalysts during steam methane reforming","volume":"261","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcat.2011.03.015","article-title":"Influence of particle size on the activity and stability in steam methane reforming of supported Rh nanoparticles","volume":"280","author":"Ligthart","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-017-0029-4","article-title":"Thermo-electrochemical production of compressed hydrogen from methane with near-zero energy loss","volume":"2","author":"Clark","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2012.01.023","article-title":"Catalytic steam reforming of bio-oil","volume":"37","author":"Trane","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2011.08.005","article-title":"A dynamic membrane reactor concept for naphtha reforming, considering radial-flow patterns for both sweeping gas and reacting materials","volume":"178","author":"Iranshahi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2013.03.080","article-title":"Progress in catalytic naphtha reforming process: A review","volume":"109","author":"Rahimpour","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.08.228","article-title":"Energy and exergy analyses of hydrogen production by coal gasification","volume":"42","author":"Seyitoglu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Miller, B.G., and Tillman, D.A. (2008). Chapter 11-Gasification. Combustion Engineering Issues for Solid Fuel Systems, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5759","DOI":"10.1021\/ef3008745","article-title":"Mathematical Modeling of Coal Gasification Processes in a Well-Stirred Reactor: Effects of Devolatilization and Moisture Content","volume":"26","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.08.112","article-title":"Carbon footprint of the hydrogen production process utilizing subbituminous coal and lignite gasification","volume":"139","author":"Burmistrz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.12.054","article-title":"Parametric analysis and assessment of a coal gasification plant for hydrogen production","volume":"39","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2009.08.078","article-title":"Biomass-based hydrogen production: A review and analysis","volume":"34","author":"Kalinci","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2016.07.107","article-title":"SO2\/NOx emissions and ash formation from algae biomass combustion: Process characteristics and mechanisms","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.04.018","article-title":"Hydrogen and syngas production by superadiabatic combustion\u2014A review","volume":"173","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1002\/er.1939","article-title":"A review on biomass-based hydrogen production and potential applications","volume":"36","author":"Abuadala","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-3199(00)00058-6","article-title":"Hydrogen production by biological processes: A survey of literature","volume":"26","author":"Das","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2013.02.032","article-title":"A critical literature review on biohydrogen production by pure cultures","volume":"38","author":"Elsharnouby","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-3199(03)00094-6","article-title":"Biohydrogen production: Prospects and limitations to practical application","volume":"29","author":"Levin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2011.04.007","article-title":"Equivalent electrical model for a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser","volume":"52","author":"Atlam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-3199(97)00112-2","article-title":"An overview of industrial uses of hydrogen","volume":"23","author":"Ramachandran","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.01.099","article-title":"Nanomaterials for photoelectrochemical water splitting\u2014Review","volume":"43","author":"Joy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2020.03.109","article-title":"Current status, research trends, and challenges in water electrolysis science and technology","volume":"45","author":"Grigoriev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.04.018","article-title":"Renewable energy: Present research and future scope of Artificial Intelligence","volume":"77","author":"Jha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2019.114861","article-title":"A quadruple power generation system for very high efficiency and its performance optimization using an artificial intelligence method","volume":"168","author":"Ahn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2013.03.067","article-title":"AC-microgrids versus DC-microgrids with distributed energy resources: A review","volume":"24","author":"Justo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/23\/11363\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:38:15Z","timestamp":1760168295000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/11\/23\/11363"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"references-count":132,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["app112311363"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app112311363","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]}}}