{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T23:58:48Z","timestamp":1776211128393,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]],"date-time":"2022-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/ECI-TRA\/32244\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/ECI-TRA\/32244\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Construction and demolition waste (CDW) and coconut husk are frequently discharged into landfills, creating an environmental problem. However, the CDW can be used to obtain good-quality recycled aggregates (RA), and the coconut husk can be processed into coconut fiber (CF). These materials can be used in the construction of cement bound granular mixtures (CBGM) to be applied as base and sub-base layers of road pavements. Such a large-scale application would bring value to these materials and reduce the extraction of non-renewable natural resources. In this work, the mechanical performance of CBGM with RA and CF reinforcement was evaluated and compared with a conventional CBGM with natural aggregate (NA). The mechanical performance was assessed through the immediate bearing index (IBI), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), indirect tensile strength (ITS), and flexural strength (FLS) tests. The results of the experimental program allow the conclusion that the CBGM with RA present similar performance to the CBGM with NA. Furthermore, the use of CF effectively reinforced the integrity of the CBGM specimens at post-test, indicating potential gains in durability after cracking occurrence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app12041936","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T20:32:30Z","timestamp":1644784350000},"page":"1936","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Mechanical Performance of Cement Bound Granular Mixtures Using Recycled Aggregate and Coconut Fiber"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2703-3422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Crucho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2072-3188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"Picado-Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7131-7967","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Neves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"UEPG (2021). European Agregates Association, Annual Review 2019\u20132020, UEPG."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2016.09.008","article-title":"Harvesting the unexplored potential of European waste materials for road construction","volume":"116","author":"Poulikakos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/S0713-2743(00)80066-5","article-title":"The re-utilisation of discarded building materials in cement-stabilised layers of road and airfield pavements","volume":"1","author":"Pasetto","year":"2000","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Ser."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"499","article-title":"Use of waste materials in concrete: A review","volume":"26","author":"Tavakoli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pertanika J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crucho, J., Picado-Santos, L., and Neves, J. (2021). Cement-treated pavement layers incorporating construction and demolition waste and coconut fibres: A review. Int. J. Pavement Eng.","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2021.1984475"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crucho, J., Picado-Santos, L., and Silva, F. (2021). Cement-treated volcanic scoria for low-traffic road pavements in the Azores archipelago. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14206080"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2018). UE Directive (EU) 2018\/850 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018, amending Directive 1999\/31\/EC on the landfill of waste. Off. J. Eur. Union, L150, 100\u2013108."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2018). UE Directive (EU) 2018\/851 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018, amending Directive 2008\/98\/EC on waste. Off. J. Eur. Union, L150, 109\u2013140."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"DRE (2020). Decreto-Lei n.o 102-D\/2020. Di\u00e1rio da Rep\u00fablica, 1a S\u00e9rie, N.o 239\u201410 de Dezembro de 2020, Assembleia da Rep\u00fablica."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.215","article-title":"Structural concrete with simultaneous incorporation of fine and coarse recycled concrete aggregates: Mechanical, durability and long-term properties","volume":"154","author":"Pedro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.03.012","article-title":"Mechanical performance of concrete made with aggregates from construction and demolition waste recycling plants","volume":"99","author":"Bravo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2014.12.103","article-title":"Durability performance of concrete with recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste plants","volume":"77","author":"Bravo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.087","article-title":"Field performance of concrete pavement incorporating recycled concrete aggregate","volume":"126","author":"Sadati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.3141\/2290-14","article-title":"Effect of recycled concrete aggregate properties on mixture proportions of structural concrete","volume":"2290","author":"Butler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Gonzalez-Bur\u00f3n, J., and Nougu\u00e9s, A. (2019, January 6\u201310). Study of granular base course with incorporation of recycled concrete aggregates\u2014Argentinas\u2019 experience. Proceedings of the PIARC\u201426th World Road Congress, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2015.12.021","article-title":"Use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A literature review","volume":"49","author":"Cardoso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.105","article-title":"Laboratory evaluation of recycled construction and demolition waste for pavements","volume":"25","author":"Leite","year":"2011","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Chai, L., Monismith, C.L., and Harvey, J. (2009). Re-Cementation of Crushed Material in Pavement Bases, Pavement Research Center, University of California."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Freire, A.C., Neves, J., Roque, A., Martins, I., Antunes, M.L., and Faria, G. (2013, January 11\u201313). Use of construction and demolition recycled materials (C&DRM) in road pavements validated on experimental test sections. Proceedings of the WASTES 2013: Solutions, Treatments and Opportunities 2nd International Conference, Braga, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1500","article-title":"Feasibility study of milled and crushed reclaimed asphalt pavement for application in unbound granular layers","volume":"629","author":"Freire","year":"2019","journal-title":"Road Mater. Pavement Des."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2994","DOI":"10.3390\/ma13132994","article-title":"Use of recycled fine aggregates from C&DW for unbound road sub-base","volume":"13","author":"Courard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciampa, D., Cioffi, R., Colangelo, F., Diomedi, M., Farina, I., and Olita, S. (2020). Use of unbound materials for sustainable road infrastructures. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10103465"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pourkhorshidi, S., Sangiorgi, C., Torreggiani, D., and Tassinari, P. (2020). Using Recycled Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste in Unbound Layers of Pavements. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12229386"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/S0713-2743(00)80068-9","article-title":"Self-cementing properties of crushed demolishing concrete in unbound layers results from triaxial tests and field tests","volume":"1","author":"Arm","year":"2000","journal-title":"Waste Manag. Ser."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014270","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001245","article-title":"Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Roadways: A Laboratory Examination of Self-Cementing Characteristics","volume":"27","author":"Jitsangiam","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asej.2013.02.005","article-title":"Utilization of cement treated recycled concrete aggregates as base or subbase layer in Egypt","volume":"4","author":"Behiry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ain Shams Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.01.023","article-title":"Recycling of waste aggregate in cement bound mixtures for road pavement bases and sub-bases","volume":"108","author":"Pasetto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1080\/14680629.2015.1029680","article-title":"Pavement construction using road waste building\u2014From a model to reality","volume":"16","author":"Stehlik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Road Mater. Pavement Des."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198118821099","article-title":"Evaluation of Chemically Stabilized Quarry Byproduct Applications in Base and Subbase Layers through Accelerated Pavement Testing","volume":"2673","author":"Qamhia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2011.11.003","article-title":"Construction of road sections using mixed recycled aggregates treated with cement in Malaga, Spain","volume":"58","author":"Agrela","year":"2012","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.02.034","article-title":"Application of cement-treated recycled materials in the construction of a section of road in Malaga, Spain","volume":"44","author":"Agrela","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2011.11.019","article-title":"Critical review of recent publications on use of natural composites in infrastructure","volume":"43","author":"Dittenber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sekar, A., and Kandasamy, G. (2018). Optimization of coconut fiber in coconut shell concrete and its mechanical and bond properties. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11091726"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.002","article-title":"Strength and durability of coconut-fiber-reinforced concrete in aggressive environments","volume":"38","author":"Ramli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.068","article-title":"Mechanical and dynamic properties of coconut fibre reinforced concrete","volume":"30","author":"Ali","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.118","article-title":"Effects of short coconut fiber on the mechanical properties, plastic cracking behavior, and impact resistance of cementitious composites","volume":"127","author":"Hwang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.052","article-title":"Experimental investigations on coconut-fibre rope tensile strength and pullout from coconut fibre reinforced concrete","volume":"41","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.02.050","article-title":"Flexural behaviour of flax FRP double tube confined coconut fibre reinforced concrete beams with interlocking interface","volume":"192","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2015.12.069","article-title":"Nonlinear flexural behaviour of flax FRP double tube confined coconut fibre reinforced concrete","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.150","article-title":"Effect of super plasticizer on the properties of medium strength concrete prepared with coconut fiber","volume":"182","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.092","article-title":"The behaviour of coconut fibre reinforced concrete (CFRC) under impact loading","volume":"134","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, S.A. (2016). Use of Coconut Fiber in Concrete (in Portuguese). [Master\u2019s Thesis, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto]."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"208","article-title":"Mechanical Properties and Fracture Behaviour of Coconut Fibre Reinforced Concrete (CFRC)","volume":"5","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Civ. Eng. Archit."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"IP (2014). Specifications."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"CEN (2009). Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates\u2014Part 11: Classification Test for the Constituents of Coarse Recycled Aggregate (Standard No. EN 933-11:2009)."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"AASHTO (2015). Standard Specification for Reclaimed Concrete Aggregate for Unbound Soil-Aggregate Base Course (Standard No. M 319-02 (2015))."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinho, F.C.G., Picado-Santos, L.G., and Capit\u00e3o, S.D. (2018). Feasibility assessment of the use of recycled aggregates for asphalt mixtures. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10061737"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"CEN (2004). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 51: Method for the Manufacture of Test Specimens of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures Using Vibrating Hammer Compaction (Standard No. EN 13286-51:2004)."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 1: Test Methods for Laboratory Reference Density and Water Content\u2014Introduction, General Requirements and Sampling (Standard No. EN 13286-1:2003)."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 4: Test Methods for Laboratory Reference Density and Water Content\u2014Vibrating Hammer (Standard No. EN 13286-4:2003)."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"CEN (2012). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 47: Test Method for the Determination of California Bearing Ratio, Immediate Bearing Index and Linear Swelling (Standard No. EN 13286-47:2012)."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 41: Test Method for the Determination of the Compressive Strength of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures (Standard No. EN 13286-41:2003)."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"CEN (2003). Unbound and Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Part 42: Test Method for the Determination of the Indirect Tensile Strength of Hydraulically Bound Mixtures (Standard No. EN 13286-42:2003)."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"CEN (2019). Testing Hardened Concrete\u2014Part 5: Flexural Strength of Test Specimens (Standard No. EN 12390-5:2019)."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"CEN (2013). Hydraulically Bound Mixtures\u2014Specifications\u2014Part 1: Cement Bound Granular Mixtures (Standard No. EN 14227-1:2013)."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Austroads (2019). Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4D\u2014Stabilised Materials, Austroads. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Ministerio de Fomento (2015). FOM\/2523\/2014, Pliego de Prescripciones T\u00e9cnicas Generales para Obras de Carreteras y Puentes (PG-3)."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"SANRAL (2014). Standards, South African Pavement Engineering Manual."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Branco, F., Pereira, P., and Picado-Santos, L. (2016). Highway Pavements, Almedina. (In Portuguese)."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"AASHTO (2013). Standard Method of Test for Wetting-and-Drying Test of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures (Standard No. T 135-13 (2013))."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"AASHTO (2013). Standard Method of Test for Freezing-and-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures (Standard No. T 136-13 (2013))."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/12\/4\/1936\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:18:23Z","timestamp":1760134703000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/12\/4\/1936"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["app12041936"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app12041936","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]}}}