{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T14:15:08Z","timestamp":1776435308681,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]],"date-time":"2022-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["953169"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["953169"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0006\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/50011\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020 (ALiCE)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0045\/2020 (ALiCE)"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00511\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MEC (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDP\/00511\/2020 (LEPABE)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/00511\/2020 (LEPABE)"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2013,"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/CTM\/50025\/2013,"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["SFRH\/BD\/87089\/2012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/87089\/2012"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/05256\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/05256\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)","award":["UIDP\/0256\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/0256\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["LAETA - UIDB\/50022\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LAETA - UIDB\/50022\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bone is an outstanding, well-designed composite. It is constituted by a multi-level structure wherein its properties and behavior are dependent on its composition and structural organization at different length scales. The combination of unique mechanical properties with adaptive and self-healing abilities makes bone an innovative model for the future design of synthetic biomimetic composites with improved performance in bone repair and regeneration. However, the relation between structure and properties in bone is very complex. In this review article, we intend to describe the hierarchical organization of bone on progressively greater scales and present the basic concepts that are fundamental to understanding the arrangement-based mechanical properties at each length scale and their influence on bone\u2019s overall structural behavior. The need for a better understanding of bone\u2019s intricate composite structure is also highlighted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app12073381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,27]],"date-time":"2022-03-27T21:27:51Z","timestamp":1648416471000},"page":"3381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Bone: An Outstanding Composite Material"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9900-8851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natacha","family":"Rosa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2151-3759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelo F. S. F.","family":"Moura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1269-8683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Olhero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Materials and Ceramic Engineering (DEMaC), CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ricardo","family":"Simoes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polytechnique Institute of C\u00e1vado and Ave, School of Technology, Campus do IPCA, 4750-810 Barcelos, Portugal"},{"name":"Institute for Polymers and Composites IPC\/I3N, University of Minho, Campus de Azur\u00e9m, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4447-4473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fern\u00e3o D.","family":"Magalh\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEPABE\u2014Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9388-2724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio Torres","family":"Marques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o P. S.","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2859-5531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Rita","family":"Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8620-9718","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3326-6345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Parente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEMec, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"81","article-title":"Functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Standring","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gray\u2019s Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, Y.H., and Draughn, R.A. 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