{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T09:26:41Z","timestamp":1768728401512,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,18]],"date-time":"2023-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the last few years, the application of adhesive joints has grown significantly. Adhesive joints are often affected by a specific type of defect known as weak adhesion, which can only be effectively detected through destructive tests. In this paper, we propose nondestructive testing techniques to detect weak adhesion. These are based on Lamb wave (LW) data and artificial intelligence algorithms. A dataset consisting of simulated LW time series extracted from single-lap joints (SLJs) subjected to multiple levels of weak adhesion was generated. The raw time series were pre-processed to avoid numerical saturation and to remove outliers. The processed data were then used as the input to different artificial intelligence algorithms, namely feedforward neural networks (FNNs), long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, gated recurrent unit (GRU) networks, and convolutional neural networks (CNNs), for their training and testing. The results showed that all algorithms were capable of detecting up to 20 different levels of weak adhesion in SLJs, with an overall accuracy between 97% and 99%. Regarding the training time, the FNN emerged as the most-appropriate. On the other hand, the GRU showed overall faster learning, being able to converge in less than 50 epochs. Therefore, the FNN and GRU presented the best accuracy and had relatively acceptable convergence times, making them the most-suitable choices. The proposed approach constitutes a new framework allowing the creation of standardized data and optimal algorithm selection for further work on nondestructive damage detection and localization in adhesive joints.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app13042642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T02:29:08Z","timestamp":1676860148000},"page":"2642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Identifying Weak Adhesion in Single-Lap Joints Using Lamb Wave Data and Artificial Intelligence Algorithms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3589-3211","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel M. F.","family":"Ramalho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7359-4370","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"M. Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1933-0865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo J. C.","family":"Carbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3272-4591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas F. M.","family":"Da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2010.12.004","article-title":"Prediction of crack initiation and propagation of adhesive lap joints using an energy failure criterion","volume":"78","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"da Silva, L.F.M., \u00d6chsner, A., and Adams, R.D. (2018). Handbook of Adhesion Technology, Springer. 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