{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]],"date-time":"2026-01-21T18:23:22Z","timestamp":1769019802257,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,3]],"date-time":"2023-05-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683072000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["870377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["870377"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["UIDB\/00099\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00099\/2020"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program","award":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["870377"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["870377"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/00099\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00099\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/50022\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reports the implementation of two critical technologies used in light detection and ranging for space applications: (1) a microchip Q-switched laser breadboard; (2) a breadboard of an indium gallium arsenide avalanche photodiode working at 292 K with high reverse polarization voltages. Microchip Q-switched lasers are small solid-state back-pumped lasers that can generate high-energy short pulses. The implemented breadboard used an erbium and ytterbium co-doped phosphate glass, a Co:Spinel crystal with 98% initial transparency, and an output coupler with 98% reflectivity. For the sensor test, a system for simultaneous operation in vacuum and a wide range of temperatures was developed. Avalanche photodiodes are reverse-polarized photodiodes with high internal gain due to their multiple layer composition, capable of building up high values of photocurrent from small optical signals by exploiting the avalanche breakdown effects. The test avalanche photodetector was assembled to be operated in two modes: linear and Geiger mode. The produced photocurrent was measured by using: (1) a passive quenching circuit; (2) a transimpedance amplifier circuit. These two technologies are important for mobile light detection and ranging applications due to their low mass and high efficiencies. The paper describes the breadboard\u2019s implementation methods and sensor characterization at low and room temperatures with high bias voltages (beyond breakdown voltage).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app13095631","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,4]],"date-time":"2023-05-04T02:03:18Z","timestamp":1683165798000},"page":"5631","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Breadboard of Microchip Laser and Avalanche Photodiode in Geiger and Linear Mode for LiDAR Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ana","family":"de Sousa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Synopsis Planet, Advance Engineering Unipessoal LDA, 2810-174 Almada, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rafael","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Institute of Astrophysics and Space Sciences, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Couto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Beltran","family":"Nadal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Hugo","family":"Onderwater","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Synopsis Planet, Advance Engineering Unipessoal LDA, 2810-174 Almada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6861-8446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Gordo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Astrof\u00edsica e Gravita\u00e7\u00e3o (CENTRA), Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Synopsis Planet, Advance Engineering Unipessoal LDA, 2810-174 Almada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0716-9568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Abreu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Astrophysics and Space Sciences, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1081-2729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Melicio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico (IDMEC), Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0884-1993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Michel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, Observatoire de la C\u00f4te d\u2019Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, 06304 Nice, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012112","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1024\/1\/012112","article-title":"HERA Mission LiDAR Altimeter Implementation","volume":"1024","author":"Dias","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1108\/AEAT-12-2020-0300","article-title":"LIDAR altimeter conception for HERA spacecraft","volume":"93","author":"Dias","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. 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