{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T23:40:42Z","timestamp":1767915642975,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]],"date-time":"2024-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730851200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Regional Development Funding","award":["11344"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11344"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Funding","award":["SFRH\/BSAB\/114289\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BSAB\/114289\/2016"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Funding","award":["PTCDT\/ECM-GEO\/0728\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTCDT\/ECM-GEO\/0728\/2014"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["11344"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11344"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["SFRH\/BSAB\/114289\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BSAB\/114289\/2016"]}]},{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["PTCDT\/ECM-GEO\/0728\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTCDT\/ECM-GEO\/0728\/2014"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Measurements taken on a historical dike in the Netherlands over one year showed that interaction with the atmosphere led to oscillation of the piezometric surface of about 0.7 m. The observation raised concerns about the long-term performance of similar dikes and promoted a deeper investigation of the response of the cover layer to increasing climatic stresses. An experimental and numerical study was undertaken, which included an investigation in the laboratory of the unsaturated behavior of a scaled replica of the field cover. A sample extracted from the top clayey layer in the dike was subjected to eight drying and wetting cycles in a HYPROP\u2122 device. Data recorded during the test provide an indication of the delayed response with depth during evaporation and infiltration. The measurements taken during this continuous dynamic process were simulated by means of a finite element discretization of the time-dependent coupled thermohydraulic response. The results of the numerical simulations are affected by the way in which the environmental loads are translated into numerical boundary conditions. Here, it was chosen to model drying considering only the transport of water vapor after equilibrium with the room atmosphere, while water in the liquid phase was added upon wetting. The simulation was able to reproduce the water mass balance exchange observed during four complete drying\u2013wetting cycles, although the simulated drying rate was faster than the observed one. The numerical curves describing suction, the amount of vapor and temperature are identical, confirming that vapor generation and its equilibrium is control the hydraulic response of the material. Vapor generation and diffusion depend on temperature; therefore, correct characterization of the thermal properties of the soil is of paramount importance when dealing with evaporation and related non-steady equilibrium states.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app142210170","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]],"date-time":"2024-11-06T06:27:39Z","timestamp":1730874459000},"page":"10170","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Numerical Thermo-Hydraulic Simulation of Infiltration and Evaporation of Small-Scale Replica of Typical Dike Covers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5196-134X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Ponzoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile Architettura Territorio Ambiente e Matematica (DICATAM), Universit\u00e0 di Brescia, 25133 Brescia, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 Delft, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4551-3868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafaela","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS\/IST, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Cristina","family":"Jommi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 Delft, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, H. (2009). Flood Control in The Netherlands. A Strategy for Dike Reinforcement and Climate Adaptation."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Koelewijn, A.R., Hoffmans, G.J.C.M., and Van, M.A. (2004, January 13\u201317). Lessons Learned from a Full-Scale Dyke Failure Test. Proceedings of the 5th Conference of the International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1144\/qjegh2017-103","article-title":"Atmosphere\u2013vegetation\u2013soil interactions in a climate change context; impact of changing conditions on engineered transport infrastructure slopes in Europe","volume":"51","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Q. J. Eng. Geol. 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Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10122044"}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/14\/22\/10170\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:27:11Z","timestamp":1760113631000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/14\/22\/10170"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["app142210170"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app142210170","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]]}}}