{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T16:14:51Z","timestamp":1772554491153,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UIDB\/00066\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/00066\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["IPL\/IDICA\/2024\/INUTRAM_ISEL"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IPL\/IDICA\/2024\/INUTRAM_ISEL"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study combines Visible Light Communication (VLC) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to optimize traffic signal control, reduce congestion, and enhance safety. Utilizing existing road infrastructure, VLC technology transmits real-time data on vehicle and pedestrian positions, speeds, and queues. AI agents, powered by Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL), process these data to manage traffic flows dynamically, applying anti-bottlenecking and rerouting techniques. A global agent coordinates local agents, enabling indirect communication and a unified DRL model that adjusts traffic light phases in real time using a queue\/request\/response system. A key focus of this work is the design of reward functions for standard and rerouting scenarios. In standard scenarios, the reward function prioritizes wide green bands for vehicles while penalizing pedestrian rule violations, balancing efficiency and safety. In rerouting scenarios, it dynamically prevents queuing spillovers at neighboring intersections, mitigating cascading congestion and ensuring safe, timely pedestrian crossings. Simulation experiments in the SUMO urban mobility simulator and real-world trials validate the system across diverse intersection types, including four-way crossings, T-intersections, and roundabouts. Results show significant reductions in vehicle and pedestrian waiting times, particularly in rerouting scenarios, demonstrating the system\u2019s scalability and adaptability. By integrating VLC technology and AI-driven adaptive control, this approach achieves efficient, safe, and flexible traffic management. The proposed system addresses urban mobility challenges effectively, offering a robust solution to modern traffic demands while improving the travel experience for all road users.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15010116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T04:30:58Z","timestamp":1735273858000},"page":"116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Integrating Visible Light Communication and AI for Adaptive Traffic Management: A Focus on Reward Functions and Rerouting Coordination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1150-9895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela","family":"Vieira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"UNINOVA-CTS and LASI, Quinta da Torre, Monte da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"},{"name":"NOVA School of Science and Technology, Quinta da Torre, Monte da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4267-0389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gon\u00e7alo","family":"Galv\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Manuel A.","family":"Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"UNINOVA-CTS and LASI, Quinta da Torre, Monte da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8556-4507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00e1rio","family":"Vestias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"INESC INOV, R. Alves Redol, 9, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Louro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"UNINOVA-CTS and LASI, Quinta da Torre, Monte da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0279-8741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DEETC-ISEL\/IPL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro, 1949-014 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2391","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2017.2749459","article-title":"A survey of the connected vehicle landscape\u2014Architectures, enabling technologies, applications, and development areas","volume":"19","author":"Siegel","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"60","article-title":"Indoor visible light communications: Challenges and prospects","volume":"7091","author":"Zeng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE\u2014Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2476474","article-title":"Visible Light Communication, Networking and Sensing: Potential and Challenges","volume":"17","author":"Parth","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"100305","article-title":"Measurement-based VLC channel characterization for I2V communications in a real urban scenario","volume":"28","author":"Caputo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Veh. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vieira, M.A., Vieira, M., Vieira, P., and Louro, P. (2017, January 24\u201327). Optical signal processing for a smart vehicle lighting system using a-SiCH technology. Proceedings of the SPIE Optics+Electronics, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2265187"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40797","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2907618","article-title":"Cooperative Deep Q-Learning With Q-Value Transfer for Multi-Intersection Signal Control","volume":"7","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Vidali, A., Crociani, L., Vizzari, G., and Bandini, S. (2019, January 26\u201328). A Deep Reinforcement Learning Approach to Adaptive Traffic Lights Management. Proceedings of the 20th Workshop \u201cFrom Objects to Agents\u201d, WOA 2019, Parma, Italy."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13677","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-022-04105-y","article-title":"A review of cooperative multi-agent deep reinforcement learning","volume":"53","author":"Oroojlooy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Intell."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girao, P.S., Alegria, F., Viegas, J.M., Lu, B., and Vieira, J. (2006, January 15\u201317). Wireless System for Traffic Control and Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology, Mumbai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT.2006.372485"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khanna, A., Goyal, R., Verma, M., and Joshi, D. (2018). Intelligent traffic management system for smart cities: First International Conference, FTNCT 2018, Solan, India, 9\u201310 February 2018, Revised Selected Papers. Futuristic Trends in Network and Communication Technologies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-3804-5_12"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zambrano-Martinez, J.L., Calafate, C.T., Soler, D., Lemus-Z\u00fa\u00f1iga, L.-G., Cano, J.-C., Manzoni, P., and Gayraud, T. (2019). A Centralized Route-Management Solution for Autonomous Vehicles in Urban Areas. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8070722"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.229","article-title":"Analysis of Signalized Intersections in the Context of Pedestrian Traffic","volume":"14","author":"Oskarbski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2018.2876553","article-title":"Modeling of Smart Cities Based on ITS Architecture","volume":"11","author":"Pribyl","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miucic, R. (2019). Connected Vehicles: Intelligent Transportation Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-94785-3"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kodi, J.H. (2019). Evaluating the Mobility and Safety Benefits of Adaptive Signal Control Technology (ASCT). [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of North Florida]. Available online: https:\/\/digitalcommons.unf.edu\/etd\/930."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilal, J.M., and Jacob, D. (2007, January 24\u201327). Intelligent Traffic Control System. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing and Communications, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSPC.2007.4728364"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3341","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2008.2002957","article-title":"Analytical Model for Connectivity in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"57","author":"Yousefi","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2011.2158001","article-title":"Data-Driven Intelligent Transportation Systems: A Survey","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, W., and Tsai, H. (2017, January 27\u201329). Testing vehicle-to-vehicle visible light communications in real-world driving scenarios. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), Torino, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC.2017.8275596"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2890726","article-title":"A Deep Reinforcement Learning Network for Traffic Light Cycle Control","volume":"68","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, P.A., Behrisch, M., Bieker-Walz, L., Erdmann, J., Fl\u00f6tter\u00f6d, Y.P., Hilbrich, R., L\u00fccken, L., Rummel, J., Wagner, P., and Wiessner, E. (2018, January 4\u20137). Microscopic Traffic Simulation using SUMO. Proceedings of the 21st IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2018.8569938"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.3390\/vehicles6020031","article-title":"Enhancing Urban Intersection Efficiency: Utilizing Visible Light Communication and Learning-Driven Control for Improved Traffic Signal Performance","volume":"6","author":"Vieira","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vehicles"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sysarc.2019.02.009","article-title":"All one needs to know about fog computing and related edge computing paradigms: A complete survey","volume":"98","author":"Yousefpour","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Archit."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Li, G., Nakajima, K., and Srivastava, A.K. (2023). Dynamic Vehicular Visible Light Communication for Traffic Management. Next-Generation Optical Communication: Components, Sub-Systems, and Systems XII, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Kim, J.K., Krames, M.R., and Strassburg, M. (2023). Using visible light communication to implement intelligent traffic signals and cooperative trajectories at urban intersections. Light-Emitting Devices, Materials, and Applications XXVII, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"076101","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.57.7.076101","article-title":"Cooperative vehicular communication systems based on visible light communication","volume":"57","author":"Vieira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2019.2954595","article-title":"Future Intelligent and Secure Vehicular Network Toward 6G: Machine-Learning Approaches","volume":"108","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3133","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2916583","article-title":"Applications of Deep Reinforcement Learning in Communications and Networking: A Survey","volume":"21","author":"Luong","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3163","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2897134","article-title":"Deep Reinforcement Learning Based Resource Allocation for V2V Communications","volume":"68","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2024.104331","article-title":"Emission analysis based on mixed traffic flow and license plate recognition model","volume":"134","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2016.2605318","article-title":"An Improved Adaptive Signal Control Method for Isolated Signalized Intersection Based on Dynamic Programming","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/1\/116\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T17:01:11Z","timestamp":1760115671000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/1\/116"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["app15010116"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15010116","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]}}}