{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T19:50:08Z","timestamp":1774986608112,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]],"date-time":"2025-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740182400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES","award":["PCIF\/AGT\/0061\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PCIF\/AGT\/0061\/2019"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PCIF\/AGT\/0061\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PCIF\/AGT\/0061\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Compartment fires, such as those occurring in buildings and confined spaces, impose modeling challenges due to the complexity of turbulent flows, combustion, and radiative heat transfer. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has become a vital tool for understanding and predicting fire dynamics in such situations. This review provides an analysis of different available methods and sub-models on the CFD tools which have been applied to compartment fires in the literature, examining current turbulence, combustion, and radiation approaches. Additionally, it identifies challenges and deficiencies in modeling such as combustion, radiation modeling, flame extinction, and ventilation impacts, discussing the balance between accuracy and computational cost. The review also highlights aspects of different sub-models and provides the reader with informative instruction in making the decisions for a more reliable CFD simulation of the compartment fire.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15052342","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T06:47:17Z","timestamp":1740379637000},"page":"2342","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Computational Fluid Dynamics of Compartment Fires: A Review of Methods and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4435-8843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vahid","family":"Parsa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3646-4926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aldina","family":"Santiago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8342-3695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds","family":"La\u00edm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISISE, ARISE, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103810","article-title":"Large Scale Multi-Compartment and Multi-Source Fire Modelling Using the Peatross & Beyler Correlation","volume":"138","author":"Amokrane","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2020.104252","article-title":"Recent Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in Process Safety and Loss Prevention: A Review","volume":"67","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s42757-021-0116-4","article-title":"Multiphase CFD Modelling for Enclosure Fires\u2014A Review on Past Studies and Future Perspectives","volume":"4","author":"Yuen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Comput. Multiph. Flow."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.6-817","article-title":"Prediction of Optical Density Using CFD","volume":"6","author":"Lngason","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.104087","article-title":"Fire Modelling: The Success, the Challenges, and the Dilemma from a Modeller\u2019s Perspective","volume":"144","author":"Wen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(98)00014-9","article-title":"Fire Research in the 21st Century","volume":"32","author":"Cox","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2024.104109","article-title":"Compartment Fires: Challenges for Fire Modeling as a Tool for a Safe Design (IAFSS Workshop, April 2021)","volume":"144","author":"Beji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drysdale, D. (2011). An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119975465"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1285(01)00005-3","article-title":"Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling of Compartment Fires","volume":"27","author":"Novozhilov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijthermalsci.2024.108933","article-title":"Thermal Characterisation of the Cooling Phase of Post-Flashover Compartment Fires","volume":"199","author":"Lucherini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103965","article-title":"Defining the Fire Decay and the Cooling Phase of Post-Flashover Compartment Fires","volume":"141","author":"Lucherini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGrattan, K., McDermott, R., Weinschenk, C., and Forney, G. (2013). Fire Dynamics Simulator, Technical Reference Guide, Special Publication (NIST SP), National Institute of Standards and Technology. [6th ed.].","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.SP.1018e6"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2024, September 16). Institut de Radioprotection et de S\u00fbret\u00e9 Nucl\u00e9aire. Available online: https:\/\/www.irsn.fr\/actualites\/isis-version-200-disponible."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2024, September 16). FM Global. Available online: https:\/\/www.fm.com\/about-us\/our-engineering-approach\/engineering-methods\/open-source-fire-modeling."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2005). Standard Guide for Evaluating Predictive Capability of Deterministic Fire Models (Standard No. ASTM E1355)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2008.12.008","article-title":"Round-Robin Study of a Priori Modelling Predictions of the Dalmarnock Fire Test One","volume":"44","author":"Rein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103892","article-title":"Validation of the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) Model for Fire Scenarios with Two Liquid Pool Fires in Multiple Compartments","volume":"141","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Skarsb\u00f8, L.R. (2011). An Experimental Study of Pool Fires and Validation of Different CFD Fire Models. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Bergen]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"McGrattan, K., and Floyd, J. (2024, September 02). Current and Future Parameters Used by FDS, Available online: https:\/\/tsapps.nist.gov\/publication\/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=933774."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Roache, P.J. (1998). Verification and Validation in Computational Science and Engineering, Hermosa Publishers."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.2514\/2.457","article-title":"Verification of Codes and Calculations","volume":"36","author":"Roache","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-0421(02)00005-2","article-title":"Verification and Validation in Computational Fluid Dynamics","volume":"38","author":"Oberkampf","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(1979). Terminology for Model Credibility. Simulation, 32, 103\u2013104.","DOI":"10.1177\/003754977903200304"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2022.06.011","article-title":"On the Importance of the Heat Release Rate in Numerical Simulations of Fires in Mechanically Ventilated Air-tight Enclosures","volume":"39","author":"Merci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1080\/10407782.2012.725010","article-title":"Sensitivity Analysis of a Fire Field Model in the Case of a Large-Scale Compartment Fire Scenario","volume":"63","author":"Suard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Numer. Heat Transf. Part A Appl."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Yeoh, G., and Yuen, K.K. (2009). Computational Fluid Dynamics in Fire Engineering: Theory, Modelling and Practice, Butterworth-Heinemann."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2006.08.002","article-title":"Simulation of an Experimental Compartment Fire by CFD","volume":"42","author":"Hasib","year":"2007","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csite.2023.103018","article-title":"Fire Modelling Framework for Investigating Tall Building Fire: A Case Study of the Plasco Building","volume":"45","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Stud. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Husted, B.P., Li, Y.Z., Huang, C., Andersson, J., Svensson, R., Ingason, H., Runefors, M., and Wahlqvist, J. (2018). Verification, Validation and Evaluation of FireFOAM as a Tool for Performance Based Design, Lund University, Department of Fire Safety Engineering. TVBB No. 3176, Brandforsk Rapport Vol. 2017, No. 2."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"232","article-title":"Selection of computational domain in numerical simulation of building fires","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.9-1365","article-title":"Effect of Computation Domain on Simulation of Small Compartment Fires","volume":"9","author":"He","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1177\/1042391510367349","article-title":"Effects of Computational Domain on Numerical Simulation of Building Fires","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fire Prot. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Li, P., Liu, J.-H., Chen, Q.-P., and Wang, J. (2016, January 2\u20134). Selection and Its Criteria of Computational Domain on Numerical Simulation of Building Fires. Proceedings of the 2nd Annual International Conference on Electronics, Electrical Engineering and Information Science (EEEIS 2016), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.2991\/eeeis-16.2017.117"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-7112(86)90046-9","article-title":"An Introduction to Fire Dynamics","volume":"10","author":"Quintiere","year":"1986","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(97)00041-6","article-title":"Large Eddy Simulations of Smoke Movement","volume":"30","author":"McGrattan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Hietaniemi, J., Hostikka, S., Vaari, J., and Building, V. (2004). Transport FDS Simulation of Fire Spread\u2014Comparison of Model Results with Experimental Data, VTT Building and Transport."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910869","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/910869","article-title":"Numerical Studies on Heat Release Rate in Room Fire on Liquid Fuel under Different Ventilation Factors","volume":"2012","author":"Cai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatfluidflow.2024.109437","article-title":"Influence of Radiation Modelling in Under-Resolved FDS Free-Burn Simulations","volume":"107","author":"Maragkos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahu, D., Jain, S., Gupta, A., and Kumar, S. (2021). Numerical Studies on Methanol Pool Fire Inside the Enclosure. Advances in Mechanical Engineering: Select Proceedings of CAMSE 2020, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-0942-8_24"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"OpenCFD Ltd (2024, October 15). OpenFOAM Docs. Available online: https:\/\/doc.openfoam.com\/2306\/tools\/processing\/boundary-conditions\/."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2024, November 15). CALIFS-ISIS V6: Physical Modeling. Available online: https:\/\/gforge.irsn.fr\/#\/project\/isis\/docs\/Tutorial."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"National Fire Protection Association (2004). NFPA 921: Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, National Fire Protection Association. [2004 ed.]."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurley, M.J., Gottuk, D.T., Hall, J.R., Harada, K., Kuligowski, E.D., Puchovsky, M., Watts, J.M., and Wieczorek, C.J. (2015). SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2565-0"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.1895.0004","article-title":"IV.On the Dynamical Theory of Incompressible Viscous Fluids and the Determination of the Criterion","volume":"186","author":"Reynolds","year":"1895","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1963)091<0099:GCEWTP>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"General circulation experiments with the primitive equations","volume":"91","author":"Smagorinsky","year":"1963","journal-title":"Mon. Weather. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Spalart, P., Jou, W.-H., Strelets, M., and Allmaras, S. (1997, January 4\u20138). Comments on the feasibility of LES for wings, and on a hybrid RANS\/LES approach. Proceedings of the First AFOSR International Conference on DNS\/LES, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023266932231","article-title":"Speziale A Combined Large-Eddy Simulation and Time-Dependent RANS Capability for High-Speed Compressible Flows","volume":"13","author":"Charles","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Sci. Comput."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1002\/fld.3714","article-title":"An Efficient Very Large Eddy Simulation Model for Simulation of Turbulent Flow","volume":"71","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.2514\/1.J053341","article-title":"Very-Large-Eddy Simulation Based on k-\u03c9 Model","volume":"53","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.fluid.34.082901.144919","article-title":"Wall-layer models for large-eddy simulations","volume":"34","author":"Piomelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Fluid. Mech."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1177\/0734904110363106","article-title":"Studies on Fire Characteristics in Over- and Underventilated Full-Scale Compartments","volume":"28","author":"Hwang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fire Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2003.12.012","article-title":"A New Model on Simulating Smoke Transport with Computational Fluid Dynamics","volume":"39","author":"Chow","year":"2004","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijthermalsci.2022.107499","article-title":"Verification of Temperature and Toxic Species in Methane Compartment Fire Using Flamelet Generated Manifold with Radiation Effect","volume":"176","author":"Safarzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Therm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Jowsey, A. (2006). Fire Imposed Heat Fluxes for Structural Analysis. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Edinburgh]. Available online: https:\/\/era.ed.ac.uk\/handle\/1842\/1480."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1063\/1.857955","article-title":"A Dynamic Subgrid-scale Eddy Viscosity Model","volume":"3","author":"Germano","year":"1991","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids A Fluid Dyn."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2746","DOI":"10.1063\/1.858164","article-title":"A Dynamic Subgrid-scale Model for Compressible Turbulence and Scalar Transport","volume":"3","author":"Moin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids A Fluid Dyn."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009995426001","article-title":"Subgrid-Scale Stress Modelling Based on the Square of the Velocity Gradient Tensor","volume":"62","author":"Nicoud","year":"1999","journal-title":"Flow. Turbul. Combust."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3670","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1785131","article-title":"An Eddy-Viscosity Subgrid-Scale Model for Turbulent Shear Flow: Algebraic Theory and Applications","volume":"16","author":"Vreman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00119502","article-title":"Stratocumulus-Capped Mixed Layers Derived from a Three-Dimensional Model","volume":"18","author":"Deardorff","year":"1980","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112070000691","article-title":"A Numerical Study of Three-Dimensional Turbulent Channel Flow at Large Reynolds Numbers","volume":"41","author":"Deardorff","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Fluid. Mech."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"(2024, October 15). OpenFOAM User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/documentation\/guides\/latest\/doc\/guide-turbulence-les-k-eqn.html."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"McGrattan, K., McDermott, R., Weinschenk, C., and Forney, G. (2013). Fire Dynamics Simulator Users Guide, Special Publication (NIST SP), National Institute of Standards and Technology. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Sagaut, P. (2005). Large Eddy Simulation for Incompressible Flows: An Introduction, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, W.-W., and Menon, S. (1995, January 9\u201312). A New Dynamic One-Equation Subgrid-Scale Model for Large Eddy Simulations. Proceedings of the 33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.1995-356"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsep.2023.102339","article-title":"Modeling of Wood Crib Fires Using a Detailed Pyrolysis Model","volume":"47","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2008.08.002","article-title":"Large Eddy Simulation of Compartment Fire with Solid Combustibles","volume":"44","author":"Yuan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.125555","article-title":"Experimental and Numerical Simulation of Multi-Component Combustion of Typical No-Charring Material","volume":"262","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2015.03.106","article-title":"Modeling the Pyrolysis of Wet Wood Using FireFOAM","volume":"98","author":"Ding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2019.102825","article-title":"Application of the Thermal Pyrolysis Model to Predict Flame Spread over Continuous and Discrete Fire Load","volume":"108","author":"Markus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.7-383","article-title":"Numerical Modeling of Pool Fires Using Les and Finite Volume Method for Radiation","volume":"7","author":"Hostikka","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103765","article-title":"On the Use of Natural and Forced Convection Correlations in Predictive CFD Simulations of Liquid Pool Fires","volume":"137","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.104005","article-title":"Numerical Simulations of Oscillatory Combustion and Extinction of a Liquid Pool Fire in a Reduced-Scale and Mechanically-Ventilated Enclosure","volume":"141","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2021.104495","article-title":"Evaluation of CFD Simulations of Transient Pool Fire Burning Rates","volume":"71","author":"Stewart","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2010.12.012","article-title":"Implementation of the Eddy Dissipation Model of Turbulent Non-Premixed Combustion in OpenFOAM","volume":"38","author":"Kassem","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1017\/S172771910000232X","article-title":"Comparison of Combustion Models in Cleanroom Fire","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mech."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1016\/S0082-0784(77)80444-X","article-title":"Development of the Eddy-Break-up Model of Turbulent Combustion","volume":"Volume 16","author":"Spalding","year":"1977","journal-title":"Symposium (International) on Combustion"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0082-0784(77)80366-4","article-title":"On Mathematical Modeling of Turbulent Combustion with Special Emphasis on Soot Formation and Combustion","volume":"Volume 16","author":"Magnussen","year":"1977","journal-title":"Symposium (International) on Combustion"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.08.074","article-title":"Comparison of Detailed Soot Formation Models for Sooty and Non-Sooty Flames in an under-Ventilated ISO Room","volume":"115","author":"Yuen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/00102200008935814","article-title":"Modelling of Premixed Laminar Flames using Flamelet-Generated Manifolds","volume":"161","year":"2000","journal-title":"Combust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2016.07.001","article-title":"State-of-the-Art in Premixed Combustion Modeling Using Flamelet Generated Manifolds","volume":"57","author":"Donini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1016\/S0082-0784(79)80130-7","article-title":"Effects of Turbulent Structure and Local Concentrations on Soot Formation and Combustion in C2H2 Diffusion Flames","volume":"Volume 17","author":"Magnussen","year":"1979","journal-title":"Symposium (International) on Combustion"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0360-1285(85)90002-4","article-title":"PDF Methods for Turbulent Reactive Flows","volume":"11","author":"Pope","year":"1985","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"395","article-title":"Recherches sur quelques points importants de la Th\u00e9orie de la Chaleur","volume":"10","author":"Petit","year":"1819","journal-title":"Ann. Chim. Phys."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-2180(97)00237-X","article-title":"A Comparison of Scalar PDF Turbulent Combustion Models","volume":"113","author":"Goldin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(00)00043-6","article-title":"Comparison of Different Combustion Models in Enclosure Fire Simulation","volume":"36","author":"Xue","year":"2001","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.combustflame.2017.03.012","article-title":"Advances in Modelling in CFD Simulations of Turbulent Gaseous Pool Fires","volume":"181","author":"Maragkos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"2425","article-title":"The Importance of the Compatible Combustion and Sub-Grid Scale Models on the Simulation of Large-Scale Pool Fire","volume":"52","author":"Heidarinejad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Amirkabir J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7239","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-020-05315-7","article-title":"Simulation of Pool and Compartment Fire Using Flamelet Generated Manifold With\/Without Radiation Coupling","volume":"46","author":"Safarzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/s40430-020-02291-9","article-title":"Comparison of Combustion Models Based on Fast Chemistry Assumption in Large Eddy Simulation of Pool Fire","volume":"42","author":"Razeghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103950","article-title":"Numerical Study of the Impact of the EDC Formulation and Finite-Rate Chemistry Mechanisms in CFD Simulations of Fire Plumes","volume":"141","author":"Maragkos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Peters, N., and Rogg, B. (2008). Reduced Kinetic Mechanisms for Applications in Combustion Systems, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.01.026","article-title":"Importance of Detailed Chemical Kinetics on Combustion and Soot Modelling of Ventilated and Under-Ventilated Fires in Compartment","volume":"96","author":"Yuen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2019.06.004","article-title":"Non-Grey Radiative Heat Transfer Modelling in LES-CFD Simulated Methanol Pool Fires","volume":"234","author":"Sikic","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2010.04.028","article-title":"Evaluation of Solution Methods for Radiative Heat Transfer in Gaseous Oxy-Fuel Combustion Environments","volume":"111","author":"Porter","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2020.103124","article-title":"Semi-Empirical Model for Estimating the Heat Release Rate Required for Flashover in Compartments with Thermally-Thin Boundaries and Ultra-Fast Fires","volume":"120","author":"Beshir","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2020.103211","article-title":"Influence of Wind on the Onset of Flashover within Small-Scale Compartments with Thermally-Thin and Thermally-Thick Boundaries","volume":"117","author":"Centeno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-7112(00)00058-8","article-title":"The Effect of Microscopic and Global Radiative Heat Exchange on the Field Predictions of Compartment Fires","volume":"36","author":"Wen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/00102209608951975","article-title":"Prediction of Radiative Heat Transfer in Laminar Flames","volume":"118","author":"Liu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Combust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1016\/S0082-0784(81)80144-0","article-title":"A New Radiation Solution Method for Incorporation in General Combustion Prediction Procedures","volume":"Volume 18","author":"Lockwood","year":"1981","journal-title":"Symposium (International) on Combustion"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.3801\/IAFSS.FSS.8-421","article-title":"Effect of Radiation Models on Cfd Simulations of Upward Flame Spread","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fire Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2017.03.055","article-title":"A Computationally Efficient P1 Radiation Model for Modern Combustion Systems Utilizing Pre-Conditioned Conjugate Gradient Methods","volume":"119","author":"Krishnamoorthy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"(2024, October 17). OpenFOAM User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/documentation\/guides\/latest\/api\/classFoam_1_1radiation_1_1noRadiation.html#details."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.2514\/3.2645","article-title":"Two-Dimensional Radiating Gas Flow by a Moment Method","volume":"2","author":"Cheng","year":"1964","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-2361(95)00269-3","article-title":"The P-1 Model for Thermal Radiation Transfer: Advantages and Limitations","volume":"75","author":"Sazhin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3246741","article-title":"Discrete-Ordinates Solutions of the Radiative Transport Equation for Rectangular Enclosures","volume":"106","author":"Fiveland","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Heat Transf."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.combustflame.2020.10.055","article-title":"Large Eddy Simulation of the Unstable Flame Structure and Gas-to-Liquid Thermal Feedback in a Medium-Scale Methanol Pool Fire","volume":"225","author":"Ahmed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Combust. Flame"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2003.09.027","article-title":"Modeling of 3-D Non-Gray Gases Radiation by Coupling the Finite Volume Method with Weighted Sum of Gray Gases Model","volume":"47","author":"Trivic","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2011.06.002","article-title":"Calculations of Gas Thermal Radiation Transfer in One-Dimensional Planar Enclosure Using LBL and SNB Models","volume":"54","author":"Chu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49707833604","article-title":"A Statistical Model for Water-vapour Absorption","volume":"78","author":"Goody","year":"1952","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"602","article-title":"Evaluation of Coefficients for the Weighted Sum of Gray Gases Model","volume":"104","author":"Smith","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.690150504","article-title":"Radiative Transfer, H.C. Hottel and A. F. Sarofim, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967. 52 Pages","volume":"15","author":"Eckert","year":"1969","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"(2024, October 17). OpenFOAM User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/www.openfoam.com\/documentation\/guides\/latest\/api\/classFoam_1_1radiation_1_1wideBandAbsorptionEmission.html."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2017.04.023","article-title":"Modeling Flame Extinction and Reignition in Large Eddy Simulations with Fast Chemistry","volume":"90","author":"White","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2014.05.072","article-title":"Numerical Simulation of Under-Ventilated Liquid-Fueled Compartment Fires with Flame Extinction and Thermally-Driven Fuel Evaporation","volume":"35","author":"Vilfayeau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2013.08.068","article-title":"Flame Extinction in a Ventilation-Controlled Compartment","volume":"62","author":"Loo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.902","article-title":"A Brief History of the Prediction of Flame Extinction Based upon Flame Temperature","volume":"29","author":"Beyler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1002\/fam.835","article-title":"A Theory for Flame Extinction Based on Flame Temperature","volume":"28","author":"Quintiere","year":"2004","journal-title":"Fire Mater."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beyler, C. (2016). Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2565-0_17"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2005.02.002","article-title":"Compartment Fire Phenomena under Limited Ventilation","volume":"40","author":"Utiskul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2023.103952","article-title":"Flame Ignition and Extinction Modelling Using Infinitely Fast Chemistry in Large Eddy Simulations of Fire-Related Reacting Flows","volume":"141","author":"Maragkos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2018.06.076","article-title":"Modeling of Flame Extinction\/Re-Ignition in Oxygen-Reduced Environments","volume":"37","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/713713031","article-title":"Local Extinction and Reignition in Nonpremixed Turbulent CO\/H 2 \/N 2 Jet Flames","volume":"174","author":"Hewson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Combust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Fancello, A. (2014). Dynamic and Turbulent Premixed Combustion Using Flamelet Generated Manifold in OpenFOAM. [Doctoral Thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology]. Available online: https:\/\/pure.tue.nl\/ws\/portalfiles\/portal\/3869475\/781467.pdf."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1080\/13647830.2017.1279347","article-title":"A Comparison of Different Approaches to Integrate Flamelet Tables with Presumed-Shape PDF in Flamelet Models for Turbulent Flames","volume":"21","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"Combust. Theory Model."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/5\/2342\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:40:24Z","timestamp":1760028024000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/5\/2342"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["app15052342"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15052342","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,22]]}}}