{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,18]],"date-time":"2026-04-18T00:40:50Z","timestamp":1776472850512,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Battery electrical vehicle (BEV) ownership has increased in recent years. There is a general concern over the life cycle of the batteries used in such vehicles. This study provides a comprehensive overview of electric vehicles, encompassing their technical evolution, autonomy, and ownership. The analysis delved into the various types of batteries utilized in these vehicles, examining the composition of their constituent materials and the mechanisms underlying their operation. Additionally, it assessed their performance in terms of energy density storage, recharge capabilities, autonomy, and prospects. A critical evaluation of electric vehicles and their internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) counterparts, considering the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) criterion, was conducted. The LCA criterion encompasses emissions during the entire lifecycle, from the \u201ccradle\u201d to the \u201ctank\u201d (WTT) and the \u201ctank\u201d until the end of its cycle (TTW). The findings of this study indicate that BEVs consistently outperformed ICEVs in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in all the sizes of vehicles studied.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15063122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]],"date-time":"2025-03-13T10:16:45Z","timestamp":1741861005000},"page":"3122","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Comparison of Battery Electrical Vehicles and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles\u2013Greenhouse Gas Emission Life Cycle Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Vasco","family":"Vieira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIDEM, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6968-3450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andresa","family":"Baptista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIDEM, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Engenharia Mec\u00e2nica e Engenharia Industrial, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1792-2223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ad\u00e9lio","family":"Cavadas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ProMetheus\u2014Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gest\u00e3o, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun\u2019\u00c1lvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0032-7356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo F.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIDEM, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Engenharia Mec\u00e2nica e Engenharia Industrial, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4850-6786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joaquim","family":"Monteiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIDEM, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Engenharia Mec\u00e2nica e Engenharia Industrial, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7935-4746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIDEM, ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Dr. Ant\u00f3nio Bernardino de Almeida, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"INEGI\u2014Instituto de Ci\u00eancia e Inova\u00e7\u00e3o em Engenharia Mec\u00e2nica e Engenharia Industrial, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Heywood, J.B. (1988). Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill Education."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (2025, January 14). Britain\u2019s New Car Market Boosted by Battery Electric Vehicle Choice. Available online: https:\/\/www.smmt.co.uk\/2023\/05\/britains-new-car-market-boosted-by-battery-electric-vehicle-choice\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2014.10.040","article-title":"Li-ion battery materials: Present and future","volume":"18","author":"Nitta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Babu, A.K. (2018). Electric & Hybrid Vehicles, Khana Publishing House."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2018). Electric Vehicles from Life Cycle and Circular Economy Perspectives, Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM)."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1021\/ja3091438","article-title":"The Li-ion rechargeable battery: A perspective","volume":"135","author":"Goodenough","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Linden, D. (2010). Linden\u2019s Handbook of Batteries, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Eddy, J., Mulligan, C., van de Staaij, J., Klip, D., Campagnol, N., and Hagenbruch, T. (2018). Metal Mining Constraints on the Electric Mobility Horizon, McKinsey Basic Minerals Institute and MineSpans by McKinsey."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2016.06.243","article-title":"Overview of energy storage in renewable energy systems","volume":"41","author":"Amrouche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn, J.B., Gaines, L., Kelly, J.C., Jamesb, C., and Gallagher, K.G. (2015). The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle lifecycle energy and emissions and recycling\u2019s role in its reduction. Energy Environ. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.1039\/C4EE03029J"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zanoletti, A., Carena, E., Ferrara, C., and Bontempi, E. (2024). A Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling: Technologies, Sustainability, and Open Issues. Batteries, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries10010038"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"The Faraday Institution (2025, January 14). High-Energy Battery Technologies. Available online: https:\/\/www.faraday.ac.uk\/policy\/high-energy-battery-technologies\/."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Power, S. (2025, January 14). Sion Power Demonstrates More Than 2500 Cycles in Licerion\u00ae Rechargeable Battery Technology. Available online: https:\/\/sionpower.com\/2022\/sion-power-demonstrates-more-than-2500-cycles-in-licerion-rechargeable-battery-technology\/."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Linder, M. (2023). The Race to Decarbonize Electric-Vehicle Batteries, McKinsey."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"European Automobile Manufacturers\u2019 Association (ACEA) (2025, January 15). New Car Registrations: +13.9% in 2023; Battery Electric 14.6% Market Share. Available online: https:\/\/www.acea.auto\/pc-registrations\/new-car-registrations-13-9-in-2023-battery-electric-14-6-market-share\/."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"The Norwegian EV Association (2025, January 15). Norwegian EV Market. Available online: https:\/\/elbil.no\/english\/norwegian-ev-market\/."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2025, January 15). International Energy Agency (IEA). Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/data-and-statistics\/charts\/global-electric-car-stock-2013-2023."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2004). Kyoto Protocol, European Commission: Press and Communication Service."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2015). Paris Agreement, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Council of the European Union (2021). European Parliament. Regulation (EU) 2021\/1119 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 establishing the framework for achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulations (EC) No 401\/2009 and (EU) 2018\/1999 (\u2018European Climate Law\u2019). Off. J. Eur. Union, 64."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"European Energy Agency (2023). Trends and Projections in Europe 2023, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Northvolt (2025, January 14). Northvolt\u2014the Future of Energy. Available online: https:\/\/northvolt.com\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ritchie, H., and Rosado, P. (2025, January 15). Electricity Mix. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/electricity-mix."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2023). Polestar and Rivian Pathway Report, Kearney."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Transport and Envoronment (T&E) (2025, January 15). How Clean are Electric Cars?\u2014T&E\u2019s Analysis of Electric Car Lifecycle CO2 Emissions. Available online: https:\/\/www.transportenvironment.org\/articles\/how-clean-are-electric-cars?."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Prussi, M., Yugo, M., de Prada, L., Padella, M., and Edwards, R. (2020). JEC Well-to-Wheels Report v5, JRC Publications Repository."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (Standard No. ISO 14040:2006)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Bieker, G. (2021). A global comparison of the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars. Communications, 49."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Green NCAP (2024). Estimated Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Primary Energy Demand of Passenger Vehicles, Green NCAP. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.greenncap.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/Green-NCAP-Life-Cycle-Assessment-Methodology-and-Data_2nd-edition_2402.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Cornet, A., Heuss, R., Tschiesner, A., Hensley, R., Hertzke, P., M\u00f6ller, T., Schaufuss, P., Conzade, J., Schenk, S., and von Laufenberg, K. (2021). Why the Automotive Future is Electric: Mainstream EVs Will Transform the Automotive Industry and Help Decarbonize the Planet, IAA."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Noering, F.K.-D., \u00d6ng\u00fcn, Y., Appelt, M., and Henze, R. (2024). An Investigation of Representative Customer Load Collectives in the Development of Electric Vehicle Drivetrain Durability. World Electr. Veh. J., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj15030112"}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/6\/3122\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:53:06Z","timestamp":1760028786000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/6\/3122"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["app15063122"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15063122","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,13]]}}}