{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T10:48:45Z","timestamp":1770979725013,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]],"date-time":"2025-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Interface Mission","award":["01\/C05-i02\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01\/C05-i02\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This research presents a sensitivity analysis of various parameters that affect the carbonation of recycled aggregates (RAs), namely CO2 concentration, temperature, and relative humidity. The range of parameter values is close to that found in cement plant chimneys with regard to the forced carbonation of RAs. With this purpose, the main characteristics of flue gas streams (CO2 concentration, temperature, and relative humidity) from two Portuguese cement plants were identified and used in this research. The results indicated that temperatures around 60 \u00b0C and CO2 concentrations around 25% accelerate the carbonation reaction and increase CO2 absorption in mixed recycled aggregates (MRAs). CO2 absorption consistently decreased as the relative humidity was reduced from 60% to 40%. The highest amount of CO2 captured was by a recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) in the conditions of 23 \u00b0C, 60% RH, and 25% CO2. Overall, the RAs were able to capture a significant amount of CO2, ranging from 52 to 348 kg of CO2 per tonne of cement paste, depending on the nature of the RA. These findings drawn from a parametric campaign provide valuable insights into the potential enforcement of carbonation for recycled aggregates under conditions that closely reflect those found in cement plants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15095005","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,2]],"date-time":"2025-05-02T07:44:58Z","timestamp":1746171898000},"page":"5005","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Towards Industrial Implementation: Experimental Campaign Based on Variations in Temperature, Humidity, and CO2 Concentration in Forced Carbonation Reactions of Recycled Aggregates"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5644-9948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Bastos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"c5Lab\u2014Sustainable Construction Materials Association, Edif\u00edcio Central Park, Rua Central Park 6, 2795-242 Linda-a-Velha, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3445-9683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catarina","family":"Braz\u00e3o Farinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9869-7229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cinthia Maia","family":"Pederneiras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"CERIS\u2014Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7135-8603","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ros\u00e1rio","family":"Veiga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Alexandre","family":"Bogas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS\u2014Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6055-7917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Infante Gomes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"CERIS\u2014Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8002-0682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f3nio","family":"Santos Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LNEC\u2014National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisbon, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"International Energy Agency (IEA) (2024, October 16). Technology Roadmap\u2014Low-Carbon Transition in the Cement Industry. Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI), Available online: https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/technology-roadmap-low-carbon-transition-in-the-cement-industry."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"479","article-title":"Ways to reduce CO2 emissions and energetic consumption at clinker producing under Romanian specific conditions","volume":"16","author":"Holban","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Prot. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsbe.2013.05.001","article-title":"Trends and developments in green cement and concrete technology","volume":"1","author":"Imbabi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes, R.I., Bastos, D., Farinha, C.B., Pederneiras, C.M., Veiga, R., de Brito, J., Faria, P., and Silva, A.S. (2021). Mortars with cdw recycled aggregates submitted to high levels of CO2. Infrastructures, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures6110159"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2008.09.003","article-title":"Competition of several carbonation reactions in concrete: A parametric study","volume":"38","author":"Peter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.06.007","article-title":"Experimental study on effects of CO2 concentrations on concrete carbonation and diffusion mechanisms","volume":"93","author":"Cui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.128399","article-title":"Effects of temperature, humidity and CO2 concentration on carbonation of cement-based materials: A review","volume":"346","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2007.04.002","article-title":"Investigation of the carbonation front shape on cementitious materials: Effects of the chemical kinetics","volume":"37","author":"Thiery","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-021-10966-1","article-title":"Description of the concrete carbonation process with adjusted depth-resolved thermogravimetric analysis","volume":"147","author":"Vogler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.138","article-title":"Carbonation of cement paste: Understanding, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"117","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111668","article-title":"CO2 sequestration by construction and demolition waste aggregates and effect on mortars and concrete performance\u2014An overview","volume":"152","author":"Veiga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2004.04.019","article-title":"A review of accelerated carbonation technology in the treatment of cement-based materials and sequestration of CO2","volume":"112","author":"Simons","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Gomes, R.I., Bastos, D., Farinha, C.B., Veiga, R., de Brito, J., Faria, P., Silva, A.S., and Bogas, A. (2021, January 14\u201316). Carbonation Potential of Recycled Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste. Proceedings of the Fib Symposium 2021\u2014Concrete Structures: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastos, D., Braz\u00e3o Farinha, C., Maia Pederneiras, C., Veiga, R., Bogas, J.A., Infante Gomes, R., and Santos Silva, A. (2024). Pathway to Carbon Neutrality in the Cement Industry: CO2 Uptake by Recycled Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14125224"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1680\/jmacr.18.00496","article-title":"Effects of temperature, relative humidity and CO2 concentration on concrete carbonation","volume":"72","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mag. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.169","article-title":"Clinker-free CO2 cured steel slag based binder: Optimal conditions and potential applications","volume":"210","author":"Humbert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122671","article-title":"Accelerated carbonation technology for enhanced treatment of recycled concrete aggregates: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"282","author":"Pu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2015.04.017","article-title":"Carbonation behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete","volume":"62","author":"Silva","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.117980","article-title":"Increasing efficiency of carbon dioxide sequestration through high temperature carbonation of cement-based materials","volume":"238","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.119486","article-title":"The effects of carbonation conditions on the physical and microstructural properties of recycled concrete coarse aggregates","volume":"257","author":"Bellinkx","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farinha, C., Pederneiras, C.M., Gomes, R.I., Bastos, D., and Veiga, R. (2024). Life Cycle Carbon Assessment of Mortars with Carbonated and Non-Carbonated Recycled Aggregates. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14177442"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2011). Cement Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements (Standard No. EN 197-1)."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121475","article-title":"Physical, chemical and mineralogical characterization of Dutch fine recycled concrete aggregates: A comparative study","volume":"270","author":"Visser","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2011). Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates\u2014Part 11: Classification Test for the Constituents of Coarse Recycled Aggregate (Standard No. EN 933-11)."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(1998). Methods of Test for Mortar for Masonry\u2014Part 1: Determination of Particle Size Distribution (by Sieve Analysis) (Standard No. EN 1015-1)."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.105073","article-title":"On the processes causing the alteration of cement-based materials while drying: Differential scanning calorimetry as a reliable tool for indirect microstructural analysis","volume":"59","author":"Bednarska","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(1993). An\u00e1lise Mineral\u00f3gica por Difratometria de Raios X (Standard No. LNEC E 403)."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600576720016532","article-title":"Validation of the Crystallography Open Database using the Crystallographic Information Framework","volume":"54","author":"Vaitkus","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s13321-018-0279-6","article-title":"Using SMILES strings for the description of chemical connectivity in the Crystallography Open Database","volume":"10","author":"Merkys","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cheminform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600576715022396","article-title":"COD::CIF::Parser: An error-correcting CIF parser for the Perl language","volume":"49","author":"Merkys","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1107\/S1600576714025904","article-title":"Computing stoichiometric molecular composition from crystal structures","volume":"48","author":"Merkys","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkr900","article-title":"Crystallography Open Database (COD): An open-access collection of crystal structures and platform for world-wide collaboration","volume":"40","author":"Merkys","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1107\/S0021889809016690","article-title":"Crystallography Open Database\u2014An open-access collection of crystal structures","volume":"42","author":"Graulis","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Crystallogr."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"247","article-title":"The American Mineralogist crystal structure database","volume":"88","author":"Downs","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. Mineral."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2024.117839","article-title":"Random crowd-induced vibration in footbridge and adaptive control using semi-active TMD including crowd-structure interaction","volume":"306","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Braz\u00e3o Farinha, C., Pederneiras, C.M., Bastos, D., Infante Gomes, R., Veiga, R., Santos Silva, A., and Martins, I. (2023, January 10\u201312). CDW as sources of CO2 absorption. Proceedings of the V International Conference Progress of Recycling in the Built Environment, Weimar, Germany."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2015.04.001","article-title":"Assessment of the protective effect of carbonation on portlandite crystals","volume":"74","author":"Galan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(97)00102-6","article-title":"Effects of Carbonation on Pore Structure and Diffusional Properties of Hydrated Cement Pastes","volume":"27","author":"Ngala","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2018.09.019","article-title":"Carbonation of hardened cement pastes: Influence of temperature","volume":"115","author":"Drouet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2019.103446","article-title":"Utilization of CO2 curing to enhance the properties of recycled aggregate and prepared concrete: A review","volume":"105","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103736","article-title":"Carbonation depth model and carbonated acceleration rate of concrete under different environment","volume":"114","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127813","article-title":"Properties investigation of recycled aggregates and concrete modified by accelerated carbonation through increased temperature","volume":"341","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1007\/s11595-013-0798-y","article-title":"Determination of the apparent activation energy of concrete carbonation","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Wuhan Univ. Technol. Mater. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcou.2022.102000","article-title":"An overview of utilizing CO2 for accelerated carbonation treatment in the concrete industry","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. CO2 Util."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1680\/jadcr.22.00129","article-title":"Effect of temperature on carbon dioxide mineralisation in recycled cement paste","volume":"35","author":"Zajac","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Cem. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4823","DOI":"10.1021\/cg100714m","article-title":"Growth of nanosized calcite through gas-solid carbonation of nanosized portlandite under anisobaric conditions","volume":"10","author":"Daval","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cryst. Growth Des."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.005","article-title":"Influence of the carbon dioxide concentration on the resistance to carbonation of concrete","volume":"67","author":"Visser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-016-0917-2","article-title":"Carbonation of concrete: The role of CO2 concentration, relative humidity and CO2 buffer capacity","volume":"50","author":"Leemann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Struct. Constr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sereng, M., Djerbi, A., Metalssi, O.O., Dangla, P., and Torrenti, J.M. (2021). Improvement of recycled aggregates properties by means of CO2 uptake. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11146571"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1007\/s11709-020-0635-2","article-title":"Prediction on CO2 uptake of recycled aggregate concrete","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Struct. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.107779","article-title":"Accelerated carbonation of recycled concrete aggregates and its implications for the production of recycling concrete","volume":"79","author":"Leemann","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0008-8846(02)00908-0","article-title":"Depth profiles of carbonates formed during natural carbonation","volume":"32","author":"Houst","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2010.09.026","article-title":"Influence of relative humidity on the carbonation of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles and the formation of calcium carbonate polymorphs","volume":"205","author":"Fort","year":"2011","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2013.03.009","article-title":"Natural and accelerated CO2 binding kinetics in cement paste at different relative humidities","volume":"49","author":"Galan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2019.10.008","article-title":"The role of relative humidity and cement type on carbonation resistance of concrete","volume":"58","author":"Elsalamawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alexandria Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Sereng, M., Djerbi, A., Omikrine-Metalssi, O., Dangla, P., and Torrenti, J.M. (2018, January 29\u201331). Effect of water contents of recycled concrete aggregates on carbonation kinetic. Proceedings of the 12th Fib International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering, Prague, Czech Republic."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/9\/5005\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:25:23Z","timestamp":1760030723000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/9\/5005"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["app15095005"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15095005","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,30]]}}}