{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T07:40:16Z","timestamp":1776843616635,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]],"date-time":"2025-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52279141"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52279141"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52478284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52478284"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023C01154"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023C01154"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022C04005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022C04005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021C01022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021C01022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022SZ-TD016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022SZ-TD016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["52279141"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52279141"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["52478284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52478284"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["2023C01154"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023C01154"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["2022C04005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022C04005"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["2021C01022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021C01022"]}]},{"name":"R&amp;D Program of Zhejiang Province","award":["2022SZ-TD016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022SZ-TD016"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["52279141"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52279141"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["52478284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52478284"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["2023C01154"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023C01154"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["2022C04005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022C04005"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["2021C01022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021C01022"]}]},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering","award":["2022SZ-TD016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022SZ-TD016"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["52279141"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52279141"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["52478284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52478284"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["2023C01154"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023C01154"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["2022C04005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022C04005"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["2021C01022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021C01022"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University","award":["2022SZ-TD016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022SZ-TD016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional printing concrete (3DPC) has garnered significant attention for its construction efficiency and complex geometric capabilities. However, its mechanical properties differ markedly from cast-in-place concrete due to interlayer\/intralayer interface weakening and pore anisotropy. Flowability directly regulates printability and pore distribution, thereby influencing mechanical properties. This study systematically examines flowability\u2019s effects on 3DPC mechanical properties through compressive, flexural, and interfacial splitting tensile tests, integrated with Griffith\u2019s fracture theory and stress intensity factor calculations. The key findings are as follows: (1) 3DPC exhibits pronounced anisotropy\u2014compressive strength (X &gt; Y &gt; Z), flexural strength (Y \u2248 Z &gt; X2 &gt; X1), and splitting tensile strength (C &gt; T). Increased flowability enables compressive and Y\/Z direction flexural strengths to approach cast concrete levels. (2) The anisotropy coefficient Ia decreases significantly with flowability (66.7% for compressive, 66.8% for flexural strength). Flexural strength shows greater sensitivity to interfacial defects than compressive strength. (3) The aspect ratio of ellipsoidal pores directly influences the anisotropic compressive behavior. Increased flowability promotes morphological transformation of elliptical pores toward more spherical geometries with reduced flattening, thereby mitigating the anisotropy in compressive performance. These results establish a theoretical framework for optimizing and predicting 3DPC mechanical performance, supporting its practical application in construction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15116070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]],"date-time":"2025-05-28T12:28:42Z","timestamp":1748435322000},"page":"6070","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Flowability-Dependent Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of 3D Printing Concrete: Experimental and Theoretical Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3887-4466","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinlei","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}]},{"given":"Quanbiao","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Balance Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}]},{"given":"Hailong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering, Taiyuan 030024, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaoyan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"},{"name":"Shanxi-Zheda Institute of New Materials and Chemical Engineering, Taiyuan 030024, China"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIPPR Engineering Group Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou 450007, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1769","article-title":"Research Progress and Application of 3D Printing Concrete","volume":"40","author":"Chao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Chin. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"102500","article-title":"PVA fibre reinforced high-strength cementitious composite for 3D printing: Mechanical properties and durability","volume":"49","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104311","article-title":"3D printable concrete with natural and recycled coarse aggregates: Rheological, mechanical and shrinkage behaviour","volume":"125","author":"Rahul","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(98)00019-1","article-title":"Effect of mix proportions on plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete in hot environments","volume":"12","author":"Almusallam","year":"1998","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132229","article-title":"Inclusive characterization of 3D printed concrete (3DPC) in additive manufacturing: A detailed review","volume":"394","author":"Usman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106037","article-title":"Extrusion-based additive manufacturing with cement-based materials\u2014Production steps, processes, and their underlying physics: A review","volume":"132","author":"Mechtcherine","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.061","article-title":"Rheological and harden properties of the high-thixotropy 3D printing concrete","volume":"201","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"101740","article-title":"An investigation into the porosity of extrusion-based 3D printed concrete","volume":"37","author":"Kruger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Surehali, S., Tripathi, A., and Neithalath, N. (2023). Anisotropy in Additively Manufactured Concrete Specimens under Compressive Loading\u2014Quantification of the Effects of Layer Height and Fiber Reinforcement. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16155488"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"102944","article-title":"Modification effect of nanosilica and polypropylene fiber for extrusion-based 3D printing concrete: Printability and mechanical anisotropy","volume":"56","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.3151\/jact.19.1264","article-title":"The Influence of Polypropylene Fiber on the Working Performance and Mechanical Anisotropy of 3D Printing Concrete","volume":"19","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106477","article-title":"Workability and hardened properties of 3D printed engineered cementitious composites incorporating recycled sand and PE fibers","volume":"71","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126551","article-title":"3D-printable aerogel-incorporated concrete: Anisotropy influence on physical, mechanical, and thermal insulation properties","volume":"323","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16851","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-06416-w","article-title":"Anisotropic mechanical properties of extrusion-based 3D printed layered concrete","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2011.12.003","article-title":"Hardened properties of high-performance printing concrete","volume":"42","author":"Le","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.008","article-title":"Mechanical anisotropy of aligned fiber reinforced composite for extrusion-based 3D printing","volume":"202","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.132","article-title":"Mechanical properties of structures 3D printed with cementitious powders","volume":"93","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.104745","article-title":"Optimization of 3D printing concrete with coarse aggregate via proper mix design and printing process","volume":"56","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2021.104158","article-title":"Influence of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and silica fume on stability, rheological properties, and printability of 3D printing foam concrete","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.133830","article-title":"Thermal and mechanical performance of 3D printing functionally graded concrete: The role of SAC on the rheology and phase evolution of 3DPC","volume":"409","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"102843","article-title":"Influence of pore defects on the hardened properties of 3D printed concrete with coarse aggregate","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2022.104742","article-title":"3D printing concrete with recycled coarse aggregates: The influence of pore structure on interlayer adhesion","volume":"134","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"101712","article-title":"Finite element analysis on the anisotropic behavior of 3D printed concrete under compression and flexure","volume":"39","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.235","article-title":"Effects of layer-interface properties on mechanical performance of concrete elements produced by extrusion-based 3D-printing","volume":"205","author":"Nerella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118785","article-title":"Steel fibres reinforced 3D printed concrete: Influence of fibre sizes on mechanical performance","volume":"250","author":"Pham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.232","article-title":"Effect of surface moisture on inter-layer strength of 3D printed concrete","volume":"172","author":"Sanjayan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Long, C. (2021). Investigation on the Performance of Underwater 3D Printing Concrete Materials and Compression Components. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Zhejiang University]."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Jing, Z. (2021). Constitutive Mode of 3D Printed Concrete Material and Bending Behavior of 3D Printed Concrete Beam. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Zhejiang University]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102742","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2020.102742","article-title":"The effect of the shape and size of initial flaws on crack propagation in uniaxially compressed linear brittle materials","volume":"109","author":"Iskander","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2018.11.028","article-title":"Experimental study on the strength and fracture mechanism of sandstone containing elliptical holes and fissures under uniaxial compression","volume":"205","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2020.107106","article-title":"Influence of initial defects on deformation and failure of concrete under uniaxial compression","volume":"234","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.140059","article-title":"Influences of particle size on the performance of 3D printed coarse aggregate concrete: Experiment, microstructure, and mechanism analysis","volume":"463","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"91","article-title":"Experimental study on the effect caused by water reducing agent on concrete","volume":"86\u201388","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Concrete"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2019.103406","article-title":"Design of 3D printable concrete based on the relationship between flowability of cement paste and optimum aggregate content","volume":"104","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Comp."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"21050230","article-title":"Mix Proportion Optimization of 3D Printing Concrete for Underwater Intelligent Construction","volume":"36","author":"Xiaoyan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2022). Test Methods for Basic Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Concrete (Standard No. T\/CBMF 183\u20142022\/T\/CCPA 33\u20142022)."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2019). Standard for Test Methods of Concrete Physical and Mechanical Properties (Standard No. GB\/T 50081-2019)."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2019.105824","article-title":"Multiscale X-ray tomography of cementitious materials: A review","volume":"128","author":"Brisard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.140492","article-title":"Effect of X-ray CT characterized pore structure on the freeze\u2013thaw resistance of 3D printed concrete with recycled coarse aggregate","volume":"469","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"103137","article-title":"Unraveling pore structure alternations in 3D-printed geopolymer concrete and corresponding impacts on macro-properties","volume":"59","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addit. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4457","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-024-2165-2","article-title":"Investigations on Interface Shear-stress Transfer Behavior of Concrete Composite Slabs with Lattice Girders","volume":"28","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsg.2017.07.013","article-title":"Stress concentrations around voids in three dimensions: The roots of failure","volume":"102","author":"Davis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Struct. Geol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118590","article-title":"Influence of multi-walled nanotubes on the fresh and hardened properties of a 3D printing PVA mortar ink","volume":"247","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122586","article-title":"Effect of polyethylene fiber content on workability and mechanical-anisotropic properties of 3D printed ultra-high ductile concrete","volume":"281","author":"Ye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.1921.0006","article-title":"The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids","volume":"221","author":"Griffith","year":"1921","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2021.106695","article-title":"Evaluating the effects of porosity on the mechanical properties of extrusion-based 3D printed concrete","volume":"153","author":"Kruger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2018.05.009","article-title":"A comparative study on stress intensity factor-based criteria for the prediction of mixed mode I-II crack propagation in concrete","volume":"197","author":"Dong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2022.103413","article-title":"Analysis of stress intensity factor for a crack emanating from elliptical hole subjected to compressive stress and shear stress","volume":"120","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech."}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/11\/6070\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:42:18Z","timestamp":1760031738000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/11\/6070"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["app15116070"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15116070","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3417","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,28]]}}}