{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:29:46Z","timestamp":1760059786014,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]],"date-time":"2025-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Committee of Science of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["BR21882278"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BR21882278"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Additive manufacturing reshapes concrete construction, yet routine strength verification of printed elements still depends on destructive core sampling. This study evaluates whether standard 70 mm cubes\u2014corrected by a single factor\u2014can provide an equally reliable measure of in situ compressive strength. Five Portland-cement mixes, with and without ash-slag techno-mineral filler, were extruded into wall blocks on a laboratory 3D printer. For each mix, the compressive strengths of the cubes and \u2205 28 mm drilled cores were measured at 7, 14 and 28 days. The core strengths were consistently lower than the cube strengths, but their ratios remained remarkably stable: the transition coefficient clustered between 0.82 and 0.85 (mean 0.83). Ordinary least-squares regression of the pooled data produced the linear relation R^core [MPa] = 0.97 R^cube \u2212 4.9, limiting the prediction error to less than 2 MPa (under 3% across the 40\u2013300 MPa range) and outperforming more complex machine-learning models. Mixtures containing up to 30% ash-slag filler maintained structural-grade strength while reducing clinker demand, underscoring their sustainability potential. The results deliver a simple, evidence-based protocol for non-destructive strength assessment of 3D-printed concrete and provide quantitative groundwork for future standardisation of quality-control practices in additive construction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app15147737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,11]],"date-time":"2025-07-11T14:22:36Z","timestamp":1752243756000},"page":"7737","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Additive Manufacturing as an Alternative to Core Sampling in Concrete Strength Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Darya","family":"Anop","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan Technical University, Ust-Kamenogorsk 070004, Kazakhstan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2870-6668","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marzhan","family":"Sadenova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan Technical University, Ust-Kamenogorsk 070004, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Nail","family":"Beisekenov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan"}]},{"given":"Olga","family":"Rudenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan Technical University, Ust-Kamenogorsk 070004, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Zulfiya","family":"Aubakirova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction Materials and Technologies, A. Saginov Karaganda Technical University, Karaganda 100000, Kazakhstan"}]},{"given":"Assel","family":"Jexembayeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shufrin, I., Pasternak, E., and Dyskin, A. (2023). Environmentally Friendly Smart Construction\u2014Review of Recent Developments and Opportunities. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app132312891"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1108\/RPJ-07-2021-0160","article-title":"A Critical Review of 3D Printing and Digital Manufacturing in Construction Engineering","volume":"28","author":"Ali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rapid Prototyp. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasco, J., Lei, Z., and Aranas, C. (2022). Additive Manufacturing in Off-Site Construction: Review and Future Directions. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12010053"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.105863","article-title":"A Review of \u201c3D Concrete Printing\u201d: Materials and Process Characterization, Economic Considerations and Environmental Sustainability","volume":"66","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamage, K., Fawzia, S., Zahra, T., Teixeira, M.B.F., and Sulong, N.H.R. (2024). Advancement in Sustainable 3D Concrete Printing: A Review on Materials, Challenges, and Current Progress in Australia. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14020494"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahid, M., and Sglavo, V.M. (2024). Binder Jetting 3D Printing of Binary Cement\u2014Siliceous Sand Mixture. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17071514"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Liu, Z., Hou, J., and Ge, M. (2024). Research Progress and Trend Analysis of Concrete 3D Printing Technology Based on CiteSpace. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14040989"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.015","article-title":"Cementitious Materials for Construction-Scale 3D Printing: Laboratory Testing of Fresh Printing Mixture","volume":"145","author":"Kazemian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.132","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Structures 3D Printed with Cementitious Powders","volume":"93","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dvorkin, L., Marchuk, V., Mr\u00f3z, K., Maroszek, M., and Hager, I. (2024). Energy-Efficient Mixtures Suitable for 3D Technologies. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14073038"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roux, C., Archez, J., Gall, C.L., Saad\u00e9, M., F\u00e9raille, A., and Caron, J.-F. (2024). Towards Sustainable Material: Optimizing Geopolymer Mortar Formulations for 3D Printing: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach. Sustainability, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/su16083328"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoshihara, R., Nakase, K., Hashimoto, K., Sugiyama, T., and Honda, Y. (2024). Evaluation of Aggregate Distribution Heterogeneity in 3D Printed Concrete by Means of X-Ray CT. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14041132"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2020.106040","article-title":"Improving Printability of Limestone-Calcined Clay-Based Cementitious Materials by Using Viscosity-Modifying Admixture","volume":"132","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2016). Metodi di prova dei cementi\u2014Parte 1: Determinazione delle resistenze Meccaniche (Standard No. UNI EN 196-1:2016)."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2013). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50 Mm [2 In.] Cube Specimens) (Standard No. ASTM C109\/C109M-24)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.11.2667","article-title":"Possibility of Concrete Prepared with Steel Slag as Fine and Coarse Aggregates: A Preliminary Study","volume":"24","author":"Chunlin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132924","article-title":"3D Printable Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (3DP-SHCC), Tailoring Fresh and Hardened State Properties","volume":"403","author":"Bos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Construction and Building Materials"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Wei, J., and Khayat, K.H. (2024). 3D Printing of Fiber-Reinforced Calcined Clay-Limestone-Based Cementitious Materials: From Mixture Design to Printability Evaluation. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14061666"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cap\u00eato, A.P., Jesus, M., Uribe, B.E.B., Guimar\u00e3es, A.S., and Oliveira, A.L.S. (2024). Building a Greener Future: Advancing Concrete Production Sustainability and the Thermal Properties of 3D-Printed Mortars. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14051323"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahmenko, G., Puzule, L., Sapata, A., Slosbergs, P., Bumanis, G., Sinka, M., and Bajare, D. (2024). Gypsum\u2013Cement\u2013Pozzolan Composites for 3D Printing: Properties and Life Cycle Assessment. J. Compos. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs8060212"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Villiers, W., Mwongo, M., Babafemi, A.J., and Van Zijl, G. (2024). Quantifying Recycled Construction and Demolition Waste for Use in 3D-Printed Concrete. Recycling, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/recycling9040055"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butkut\u0117, K., Vaitkevi\u010dius, V., and Adomaityt\u0117, F. (2024). Eco-Friendly 3D-Printed Concrete Made with Waste and Organic Artificial Aggregates. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17133290"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kladovasilakis, N., Pemas, S., and Pechlivani, E.M. (2024). Computer-Aided Design of 3D-Printed Clay-Based Composite Mortars Reinforced with Bioinspired Lattice Structures. Biomimetics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics9070424"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, H.G., Mardani, A., and Mardani, N. (2024). Performance Requirements and Optimum Mix Proportion of High-Volume Fly Ash 3D Printable Concrete. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14072069"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.37538\/2224-9494-2022-2(33)-97-105","article-title":"Specific Features of Determining Concrete Strength by Stud Driving Method","volume":"33","author":"Ivanov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Sci. Res. Cent. Constr."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2025, May 25). Method for Determining the Strength of Concrete. Available online: https:\/\/patenton.ru\/patent\/RU2246109C1."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"09007","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202125809007","article-title":"Application of Non-Destructive Methods of Control within the Inspection of Concrete Structures","volume":"258","author":"Zabelina","year":"2021","journal-title":"E3S Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2013.04.098","article-title":"Effect of Dolomite Limestone Powder on the Compressive Strength of Concrete","volume":"57","author":"Mikhailova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziolkowski, P., and Niedostatkiewicz, M. (2019). Machine Learning Techniques in Concrete Mix Design. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12081256"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.137884","article-title":"Improving the Experience of Machine Learning in Compressive Strength Prediction of Industrial Concrete Considering Mixing Proportions, Engineered Ratios and Atmospheric Features","volume":"444","author":"Akber","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"e04254","article-title":"Research on 3D Printing Concrete Mechanical Properties Prediction Model Based on Machine Learning","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hematibahar, M., Kharun, M., Beskopylny, A.N., Stel\u2019makh, S.A., Shcherban, E.M., and Razveeva, I. (2024). Analysis of Models to Predict Mechanical Properties of High-Performance and Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Using Machine Learning. J. Compos. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs8080287"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamil, Y. (2023). Machine Learning in Concrete Technology: A Review of Current Researches, Trends, and Applications. Front. Built Environ., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2023.1145591"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.37538\/0005-9889-2023-1(615)-43-55","article-title":"Prospects for the Use of Fine-Dispersed Recycling Products of Concrete Processing as Mineral Additives for the Manufacture of Building Mortars","volume":"615","author":"Beppaev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Concr. Reinf. Concr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.945.115","article-title":"Experimental Study of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Structures","volume":"945","author":"Klyuev","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14007","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202016414007","article-title":"Influence of Various Additives on Properties of Concrete","volume":"164","author":"Tuskaeva","year":"2020","journal-title":"E3S Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0074","DOI":"10.54355\/tbus\/5.1.2025.0074","article-title":"Prediction of Compressive Strength and Density of Aerated Ash Concrete","volume":"5","author":"Anop","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technobius"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amiraliyev, B., Taimasov, B., Potapova, E., Sarsenbaev, B., Begentayev, M., Dauletiyarov, M., Kuandykova, A., Abdullin, A., Ainabekov, N., and Auyesbek, S. (2025). Heat Treatment of Clay Shales and Their Utilization as Active Mineral Additives for the Production of Composite Cements. J. Compos. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202504.1746.v1"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0063","DOI":"10.54355\/tbus\/4.3.2024.0063","article-title":"Fractal Model of the Strength of Lightweight Concrete Based on Volcanic Tuff Taking into Account the Scale Effect","volume":"4","author":"Khamza","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technobius"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2012). Concretes. Methods for Determining Strength Using Control Samples (Standard No. GOST 10180-2012)."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(1990). Concretes. Determination of Compressive Strength on Cores Extracted from Structures (Standard No. GOST 28570-90)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/17452759.2016.1209867","article-title":"Additive Manufacturing of Concrete in Construction: Potentials and Challenges of 3D Concrete Printing","volume":"11","author":"Bos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virtual Phys. Prototyp."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e04570","article-title":"Sustainable 3D Printed Concrete Incorporating Alternative Fine Aggregates: A Review","volume":"22","author":"Mim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Stud. Constr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mortada, Y., Mohammad, M., Mansoor, B., Grasley, Z., and Masad, E. (2022). Development of Test Methods to Evaluate the Printability of Concrete Materials for Additive Manufacturing. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15186486"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042091","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/1889\/4\/042091","article-title":"Alternative Non-Destructive Method for Strength Testing of Structural Concrete","volume":"1889","author":"Elemba","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szpetulski, J., Sadowski, G., and Stawiski, B. (2025). Compressive Strength Tests of Concrete Core Samples with the Addition of Recycled Aggregate. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18112631"}],"container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/14\/7737\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:07:44Z","timestamp":1760033264000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3417\/15\/14\/7737"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["app15147737"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15147737","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3417"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-3417"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,10]]}}}