{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T14:07:30Z","timestamp":1772460450137,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action (MSCA) Postdoctoral Fellowship and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) under Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","award":["EP\/Y015959\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/Y015959\/1"]}]},{"name":"QR Policy Support Impact Funding \u201cSmart shelters & sustainable futures\u2014Maharashtra\u2019s bio-concrete Initiative\u201d","award":["CC223010\/SoF HESA\/H0010 000ABC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CC223010\/SoF HESA\/H0010 000ABC"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Applied Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Premature deterioration of reinforced concrete is driven largely by moisture and chloride ingress, which accelerate steel corrosion and shorten service life. This study investigates a dual strategy to enhance durability while supporting circular-economy goals: (i) incorporating coal-fired biomass ash (CBA) as a fine-aggregate replacement (0%, 20%, and 50%) and (ii) applying bio-inspired surface treatments to reduce transport pathways. To capture variability in CBA performance across different environmental and material contexts, two concrete systems\u2014produced in India and the UK\u2014were evaluated, each subjected to a distinct coating approach: a bacterial self-healing treatment or a cinnamaldehyde (CNM) organic barrier. Mechanical, transport, and multi-scale characterization was performed, including compressive strength, capillary absorption, chloride migration (NT Build 492), SEM\/EDS, XRF, and XRD. The 20% CBA mixes maintained or slightly improved strength, while higher CBA contents increased porosity but reduced chloride transport in the UK mix. The bacterial coating reduced long-term water absorption by over 80% through CaCO3 mineralization, offering strong moisture resistance. The CNM coating decreased chloride migration by up to 68% via hydrophobic and ionic-blocking effects. Overall, moderate CBA with self-healing treatment enhances moisture control, whereas higher CBA with CNM provides effective chloride protection, extending the service life of CBA-based concrete.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/app16052383","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T12:39:56Z","timestamp":1772455196000},"page":"2383","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Durability Enhancement of Coal-Fired Biomass Ash Concrete Using Bio-Inspired Self-Healing Coatings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5765-9893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nisal Dananjana","family":"Rajapaksha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"given":"Mehrdad","family":"Ameri Vamkani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"given":"Zarina","family":"Yahya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Perlis 01000, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3538-533X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rahul V.","family":"Ralegaonkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 440010, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2494-405X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michaela","family":"Gkantou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3444-8183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Giuntini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacy and Biomolecular Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6292-2073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Bras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Koch, G., Varney, J., Thompson, N., Moghissi, O., Gould, M., and Payer, J. 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