{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T12:27:28Z","timestamp":1775478448715,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PTDC\/ECM-TRA\/3568\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/ECM-TRA\/3568\/2014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/131638\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/131638\/2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SFRH\/BD\/138728\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SFRH\/BD\/138728\/2018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04029\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ASI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper identifies and analyzes variables that influence pedestrian safety based on the definition of models of pedestrian crash frequency for urban areas in Portugal. It considers three groups of explanatory variables, namely: (i) built environment; (ii) pedestrian infrastructure, and (iii) road infrastructure, as well as exposure variables combining pedestrian and vehicular traffic volumes. Data on the 16 variables considered were gathered from locations in the counties of Braga and Guimar\u00e3es. The inclusion of pedestrian infrastructure variables in studies of this type is an innovation that allows for measuring the impacts of the dimensions recommended for this type of infrastructure and assessing the implementation of policies to support the mobility of vulnerable users, especially pedestrians. Examples of such variables are unobstructed space for pedestrian mobility and the recommendable distance separating regulated crossings. Zero-Truncated Negative Binomial Regression Models (ZTNB) and Generalized Estimation Equations (GEE) are used to develop crash prediction models. Results show that in addition to the variables identified in similar studies such as carriageway width, other statistically significant variables like longitudinal slope and distance between crosswalks have a negative influence on pedestrian safety. On-street parking places, one-way streets, and the existence of raised medians have an opposite contribution to safety.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/asi4020028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T10:20:11Z","timestamp":1618568411000},"page":"28","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Effect of Built Environment Factors on Pedestrian Safety in Portuguese Urban Areas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2598-7839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leidy","family":"Bar\u00f3n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering (ISISE), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jocilene","family":"Otila da Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Academic Centre of Agreste Region (CAA), Department of Technology, University Federal of Pernambuco, Caruaru 50670-901, PE, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1240-3005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Territory, Environment and Construction (CTAC), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8014-9902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Mathematics, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Alice","family":"Prud\u00eancio Jacques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, DF, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5132-7407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabete","family":"Fraga de Freitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering (ISISE), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2020). Global Status Report on Road Safety 2018, World Health Organization (WHO)."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Autoridade Nacional de Seguran\u00e7a Rodovi\u00e1ria (ANSR) (2019, November 13). Relat\u00f3rio anual de sinistralidade rodovi\u00e1ria 2018. Available online: http:\/\/www.ansr.pt\/Estatisticas\/RelatoriosDeSinistralidade\/Pages\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"European Commission (2017, July 05). Road safety in the European Union: Trends, Statistics and Main Challenges, November 2016. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/transport\/road_safety\/sites\/roadsafety\/files\/vademecum_2016.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2014.02.008","article-title":"Influence of Built Environment on Pedestrian\u2019s Crossing Decision","volume":"67","author":"Brenac","year":"2014","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2017.06.003","article-title":"Urban Street Structure and Traffic Safety","volume":"62","author":"Mohan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Saf. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1177\/0885412215595438","article-title":"Pedestrian Safety and the Built Environment","volume":"30","author":"Stoker","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Plan. Lit."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/17457300.2020.1720255","article-title":"Progress in Pedestrian Safety Research","volume":"27","author":"Tiwari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Inj. Contr. Saf. Promot."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.04.009","article-title":"The Non-Linearity of Risk and the Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transport","volume":"41","author":"Elvik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.02.005","article-title":"The Link between Built Environment, Pedestrian Activity and Pedestrian-Vehicle Collision Occurrence at Signalized Intersections","volume":"43","author":"Morency","year":"2011","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2011.09.012","article-title":"The Role of Built Environment on Pedestrian Crash Frequency","volume":"50","author":"Ukkusuri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.05.033","article-title":"A Note on Modeling Road Accident Frequency: A Flexible Elasticity Model","volume":"43","author":"Couto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.12.026","article-title":"Non-Linear Effects of the Built Environment on Automobile-Involved Pedestrian Crash Frequency: A Machine Learning Approach","volume":"112","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000163","article-title":"Theoretical Framework for Modeling Pedestrians\u2019 Crossing Behavior along a Trip","volume":"136","author":"Papadimitriou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"17","article-title":"Qualitative Analysis of Pedestrians\u2019 Perception of the Urban Environment When Crossing Streets","volume":"No. 31","author":"Brenac","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Transp. Stud."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Millot, M. (2008). Projet Urbain et S\u00e9curit\u00e9 Des D\u00e9placements: Exemple de 4 Quartiers En R\u00e9novation Urbaine, Centre D\u2019\u00e9tudes sur les R\u00e9seaux, les Transports, L\u2019urbanisme et les Constructions Publiques (CERTU)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.3141\/2237-11","article-title":"Random Parameter Model Used to Explain Effects of Built-Environment Characteristics on Pedestrian Crash Frequency","volume":"2237","author":"Ukkusuri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jth.2016.06.008","article-title":"Effects of the Built Environment on Automobile-Involved Pedestrian Crash Frequency and Risk","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transp. Heal."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.09.014","article-title":"Pedestrian Crash Estimation Models for Signalized Intersections","volume":"43","author":"Pulugurtha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2013.07.030","article-title":"A Poisson-Lognormal Conditional-Autoregressive Model for Multivariate Spatial Analysis of Pedestrian Crash Counts across Neighborhoods","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S0386-1112(14)60201-6","article-title":"The Influence of Urban Land Use on Pedestrians Casualties\u2014Case Study Area: Newcastle upon Tyne, UK","volume":"32","author":"Wedagama","year":"2008","journal-title":"IATSS Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.10.001","article-title":"An Area-Level Model of Vehicle-Pedestrian Injury Collisions with Implications for Land Use and Transportation Planning","volume":"41","author":"Wier","year":"2009","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2020.104610","article-title":"A Comprehensive Study on Factors Influencing Pedestrian Signal Violation Behaviour: Experience from Kolkata City, India","volume":"124","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.3141\/2659-23","article-title":"Changing the Future? Development and Application of Pedestrian Safety Performance Functions to Prioritize Locations in Seattle, Washington","volume":"2659","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Martin, A. (2006). Factors Influencing Pedestrian Safety: A Literature Review, TRL."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2016.03.009","article-title":"Pedestrians Risk Perception of Traffic Crash and Built Environment Features\u2014Delhi, India","volume":"87","author":"Rankavat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1080\/01944360902950349","article-title":"Safe Urban Form: Revisiting the Relationship Between Community Design and Traffic Safety","volume":"75","author":"Dumbaugh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Plan. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.03.019","article-title":"Comprehensive Analysis of Vehicle-Pedestrian Crashes at Intersections in Florida","volume":"37","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(03)00058-7","article-title":"The Effect of Infrastructure and Demographic Change on Traffic-Related Fatalities and Crashes: A Case Study of Illinois County-Level Data","volume":"36","author":"Noland","year":"2004","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(2001)127:2(151)","article-title":"Evaluating Safety of Urban Arterial Roadways","volume":"127","author":"Sawalha","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2009.03.016","article-title":"Pedestrian Crossing Decision-Making: A Situational and Behavioral Approach","volume":"47","author":"Tijus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2014.03.008","article-title":"Crossing a Two-Way Street: Comparison of Young and Old Pedestrians","volume":"50","author":"Dommes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Safety Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.12.023","article-title":"Gender Differences in Factors Predicting Unsafe Crossing Decisions in Adult Pedestrians across the Lifespan: A Simulation Study","volume":"42","author":"Holland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.12.001","article-title":"The Effects of Aging on Street-Crossing Behavior: From Estimation to Actual Crossing","volume":"41","author":"Lobjois","year":"2009","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.12.016","article-title":"Pedestrians\u2019 Injury Patterns in Ghana","volume":"42","author":"Ebel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Zegeer, C.V., Stewart, J.R., Huang, H.H., Lagerwey, P.A., Feaganes, J.R., and Campbell, B.J. (2018, July 03). Safety Effects of Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Final Report and Recommended Guidelines, Available online: https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/publications\/research\/safety\/04100\/04.cfm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(03)00059-9","article-title":"The Impact of Speed and Other Variables on Pedestrian Safety in Maine","volume":"36","year":"2004","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"25","article-title":"Making Walking and Cycling Safer: Lessons from Europe","volume":"54","author":"Pucher","year":"2000","journal-title":"Transp. Q."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(99)00011-1","article-title":"Risk Compensation\u2014the Case of Road Lighting","volume":"31","author":"Assum","year":"1999","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.10.003","article-title":"Effects of Road Lighting: An Analysis Based on Dutch Accident Statistics 1987-2006","volume":"41","author":"Wanvik","year":"2009","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.06.012","article-title":"Pedestrian Traffic Operations in Urban Networks","volume":"15","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2009.01.001","article-title":"Severity of Injury Resulting from Pedestrian-Vehicle Crashes: What Can We Learn from Examining the Built Environment?","volume":"14","author":"Clifton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3141\/2193-05","article-title":"Evaluation of Pedestrian Safety at Midblock Crossings, Porto Alegre, Brazil","volume":"2193","author":"Diogenes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.3141\/1773-10","article-title":"Modeling the Roadside Walking Environment: Pedestrian Level of Service","volume":"1773","author":"Landis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-8478(00)00004-8","article-title":"Beliefs, Motives and Situational Factors Related to Pedestrians\u2019 Self-Reported Behavior at Signal-Controlled Crossings","volume":"3","author":"Yagil","year":"2000","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(86)90034-5","article-title":"Safety Improvements and Driver Perception","volume":"18","author":"Mahalel","year":"1986","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Romero, D.J., Rizzi, L.I., and Munizaga, M. (2014, January 17\u201321). El Desaf\u00edo de Proveer Infraestructura Para Una Movilidad Segura de Los Peatones Perspectivas de la Mujer Profesional Iberoamericana ante las tendencias de la Ingenier\u00eda y Arquitectura Sostenible. Proceedings of the XII Encuentro Iberoamericano de Mujeres Ingenieras, Arquitectas y Agrimensoras, Panama City, Panama."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica (INE) (2017, May 10). Censos 2001 Resultados Definitivos. Available online: https:\/\/www.ine.pt\/xportal\/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpagenumber=3&PUBLICACOEScoleccao=107698&PUBLICACOEStipo=ea&selTab=tab0&xlang=pt."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica (INE) (2017, May 10). Censos 2011 Resultados Definitivos. Available online: https:\/\/censos.ine.pt\/xportal\/xmain?xpid=CENSOS&xpgid=censos2011_apresentacao."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/jae.3950060302","article-title":"Models for Truncated Counts","volume":"6","author":"Grogger","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Appl. Econom."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2013.04.039","article-title":"Analysis of U.S. Freight-Train Derailment Severity Using Zero-Truncated Negative Binomial Regression and Quantile Regression","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Bates, D.M. (2010). Lme4: Mixed-Effects Modeling with R, Springer."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Greene, W.H. (2003). Econometric Analysis, Pearson Education India."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hilbe, J.M. (2011). Negative Binomial Regression, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511973420"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.1974.1100705","article-title":"A New Look at the Statistical Model Identification","volume":"19","author":"Akaike","year":"1974","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2001.00120.x","article-title":"Akaike\u2019s Information Criterion in Generalized Estimating Equations","volume":"57","author":"Pan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2019.06.036","article-title":"Penalized Conway-Maxwell-Poisson Regression for Modelling Dispersed Discrete Data: The Case Study of Motor Vehicle Crash Frequency","volume":"120","author":"Abdella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., and Friedman, J. (2009). The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction, Springer Science & Business Media."}],"container-title":["Applied System Innovation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-5577\/4\/2\/28\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:48:50Z","timestamp":1760161730000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-5577\/4\/2\/28"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["asi4020028"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/asi4020028","relation":{},"ISSN":["2571-5577"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2571-5577","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]}}}