{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T01:00:11Z","timestamp":1774400411010,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)","award":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101012456 (IN2TRACK-3)"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04625\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES (PIDDAC)","award":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04708\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ASI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While digital twins (DTs) have achieved significant visibility, they continue to face a problem of lack of harmonisation regarding their interpretation and definition. This diverse and interchangeable use of terms makes it challenging for scientific activities to take place and for organisations to grasp the existing opportunities and how can these benefit their businesses. This article aims to shift the focus away from debating a definition for a DT. Instead, it proposes a conceptual approach to the digital twinning of engineering physical assets as an ongoing process with variable complexity and evolutionary capacity over time. To accomplish this, the article presents a functional architecture of digital twinning, grounded in the foundational elements of the DT, to reflect the various forms and levels of digital twinning (LoDT) of physical assets throughout their life cycles. Furthermore, this work presents UNI-TWIN\u2014a unified model to assist organisations in assessing the LoDT of their assets and to support investment planning decisions. Three case studies from the road and rail sector validate its applicability. UNI-TWIN helps to redirect the discussion around DTs and emphasise the opportunities and challenges presented by the diverse realities of digital twinning, namely in the context of engineering asset management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/asi6060114","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T00:34:10Z","timestamp":1701304450000},"page":"114","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Reshaping the Digital Twin Construct with Levels of Digital Twinning (LoDT)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6309-329X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Vieira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Infraestruturas de Portugal, S.A., 2809-013 Almada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9878-3792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Po\u00e7as Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONSTRUCT-GEQUALTEC\u2014Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7024-2679","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno Marques","family":"de Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERIS, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Hugo","family":"Patr\u00edcio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infraestruturas de Portugal, S.A., 2809-013 Almada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5794-8236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Morgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infraestruturas de Portugal, S.A., 2809-013 Almada, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Gartner (2018). Gartner Identifies Five Emerging Technology Trends That Will Blur the Lines between Human and Machine, Gartner. Available online: https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/en\/newsroom\/press-releases\/2018-08-20-gartner-identifies-five-emerging-technology-trends-that-will-blur-the-lines-between-human-and-machine."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mussomeli, A., Parrot, A., Umbenhauer, B., and Warshaw, L. (2020). Deloitte Insights\u2014Tech Trends 2020, Deloitte. Available online: https:\/\/www2.deloitte.com\/content\/dam\/insights\/us\/articles\/tech-trends-2020\/DI_TechTrends2020.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"MarketsandMarkets (2023). Digital Twin Industry Worth $110.1 Billion by 2028, MarketsandMarkets. Available online: https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/PressReleases\/digital-twin.asp."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"IEEE Computer Society (2019). IEEE Computer Society\u2019s Top 12 Technology Trends for 2020, IEEE Computer Society. Available online: https:\/\/www.computer.org\/press-room\/2019-news\/ieee-computer-societys-top-12-technology-trends-for-2020."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2018.2873186","article-title":"Digital Twin in Industry: State-of-the-Art","volume":"15","author":"Tao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vieira, J., Po\u00e7as Martins, J., Marques de Almeida, N., Patr\u00edcio, H., and Gomes Morgado, J. (2022). Towards Resilient and Sustainable Rail and Road Networks: A Systematic Literature Review on Digital Twins. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14127060"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Hasan, M., and Wegner, P. (2023). Digital Twin Market Report 2023\u20132027, IoT Analytics. Available online: https:\/\/iot-analytics.com\/product\/digital-twin-market-report-2023-2027\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Agrawal, A., Singh, V., Thiel, R., Pillsbury, M., Knoll, H., Puckett, J., and Fischer, M. (2022). Construction Research Congress 2022, ASCE."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Callcut, M., Agliozzo, J.-P.C., Varga, L., and McMillan, L. (2021). Digital Twins in Civil Infrastructure Systems. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132011549"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmsy.2020.06.017","article-title":"Review of digital twin about concepts, technologies, and industrial applications","volume":"58","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"87","article-title":"Digital Twin Concept of the ECTS application","volume":"131","author":"Kochan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Xie, X., Lu, Q., Parlikad, A.K., Pitt, M., and Yang, J. (2021). Gemini Principles-Based Digital Twin Maturity Model for Asset Management. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13158224"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, M., Fuenmayor, E., Hinchy, E.P., Qiao, Y., Murray, N., and Devine, D. (2021). Digital Twin: Origin to Future. Appl. Syst. Innov., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/asi4020036"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"33","article-title":"Informing the information requirements of a digital twin: A rail industry case study","volume":"174","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.\u2014Smart Infrastruct. Constr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2023.104833","article-title":"Digital twins for asset management: Social network analysis-based review","volume":"150","author":"Arisekola","year":"2023","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sanhudo, L., Martins, J.P., Rocha, A., Soeiro, A., and Correia, T. (2022). FEUP DECivil, U.PORTO. [10th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/repositorio-aberto.up.pt\/handle\/10216\/144569."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Opoku, D.-G.J., Perera, S., Osei-Kyei, R., Rashidi, M., Bamdad, K., and Famakinwa, T. (2023). Barriers to the Adoption of Digital Twin in the Construction Industry: A Literature Review. Informatics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/informatics10010014"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Bowers, K., Buscher, V., Dentten, R., Edwards, M., England, J., Enzer, M., Parlikad, A.K., and Schooling, J. (2017). Smart Infrastructure: Getting more from Strategic Assets, University of Cambridge. Available online: https:\/\/www-smartinfrastructure.eng.cam.ac.uk\/files\/the-smart-infrastructure-paper."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahlen, F.-J., Flumerfelt, S., and Alves, A. (2017). Transdisciplinary Perspectives on Complex Systems, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-38756-7"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ariyachandra, M.R., and Brilakis, I.K. (2020). Digital Twinning of Railway Overhead Line Equipment from Airborne LiDAR Data, International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC).","DOI":"10.22260\/ISARC2020\/0174"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2019.102837","article-title":"Digital twinning of existing reinforced concrete bridges from labelled point clusters","volume":"105","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tropmann-Frick, M., Jaakkola, H., Thalheim, B., Kiyoki, Y., and Yoshida, N. (2021). Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXXIII, IOS Press. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, 343.","DOI":"10.3233\/FAIA343"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2017.04.040","article-title":"Shaping the digital twin for design and production engineering","volume":"66","author":"Schleich","year":"2017","journal-title":"CIRP Ann."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32030","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3060863","article-title":"The Role of AI, Machine Learning, and Big Data in Digital Twinning: A Systematic Literature Review, Challenges, and Opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Rathore","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piromalis, D., and Kantaros, A. (2022). Digital Twins in the Automotive Industry: The Road toward Physical-Digital Convergence. Appl. Syst. Innov., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/asi5040065"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Bolton, A., Butler, L., Dabson, I., Enzer, M., Evans, M., Fenemore, T., Harradence, F., Keaney, E., Kemp, A., and Luck, A. (2018). Gemini Principles, CDBB."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2014). ISO 55000:2014\u2014Asset Management\u2014Overview, Principles and Terminology (Standard No. ISO 55000)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Olcott, S., and Mullen, C. (2020). Digital Twin Consortium Defines Digital Twin, Digital Twin Consortium. Available online: https:\/\/www.digitaltwinconsortium.org\/2020\/12\/digital-twin-consortium-defines-digital-twin\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"McKee, D. (2023). A Digital Twin Consortium White Paper, Digital Twin Consortium. Available online: https:\/\/www.digitaltwinconsortium.org\/platform-stack-architectural-fram-formework-an-introductory-guide-form\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, September 27). Digital Twin Hub. Available online: https:\/\/digitaltwinhub.co.uk\/glossary\/digital-twin\/."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Mercer, A. (2021). Are We Digital Twinning Yet?, Building Smart. Available online: https:\/\/www.buildingsmart.org\/are-we-digital-twinning-yet\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Change2Twin (2023, September 20). Digital Twin, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.change2twin.eu\/digital-twin\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2021). ISO 23247-1:2021\u2014Automation systems and integration\u2014Digital twin framework for manufacturing\u2014Part 1: Overview and general principles (Standard No. ISO 23247-1)."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Redman, T. (2017). Frontiers, MITSloan Management Review. Available online: https:\/\/sloanreview.mit.edu\/article\/seizing-opportunity-in-data-quality\/."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"APDA (2022). Sistemas de Informa\u00e7\u00e3o Na Gest\u00e3o de Ativos\u2014An\u00e1lise SWOT 2022, Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Portuguesa de Distribui\u00e7\u00e3o e Drenagem de \u00c1guas, Comiss\u00e3o Especializada de Gest\u00e3o de Ativos. Available online: https:\/\/apda.pt\/site\/upload\/files\/apda_sistemas_informacao_gestao_ativos_cega2022.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Roadmap to a Holistic Highway Digital Twin: A Why, How, & Why Framework","volume":"3","author":"Ammar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Infrastruct.\u2014Mod. Approach New Dev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1177\/0165551506070706","article-title":"The wisdom hierarchy: Representations of the DIKW hierarchy","volume":"33","author":"Rowley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Morel-Guimaraes, L., Khalil, T., and Hosni, Y. (2005). Management of Technology Key Success Factors for Innovation and Sustainable Development, Elsevier. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/265406151_Cognitive_Assets_A_Model_to_Understand_the_Organizational_Appropriation_of_Collective_Tacit_Knowledge."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023). ISO\/DIS 55013\u2014Asset Management\u2014Guidance on the Management of Data Assets (Draft) (Standard No. ISO\/DIS 55013). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/en\/#iso:std:iso:55013:dis:ed-1:v1:en."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Parrot, A., and Warshaw, L. (2017). Industry 4.0 and the Digital Twin\u2014Manufacturing Meets Its Match, Deloitte University Press. Available online: https:\/\/www2.deloitte.com\/content\/dam\/Deloitte\/kr\/Documents\/insights\/deloitte-newsletter\/2017\/26_201706\/kr_insights_deloitte-newsletter-26_report_02_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856873","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2022.856873","article-title":"Development of a Cognitive Digital Twin for Building Management and Operations","volume":"8","author":"Panushev","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Stanford-Clark, A., and Frank-Schultz, E. (2020). IBM Digital Twin Point of View December 2020, IBM Academy of Technology."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.31854\/2307-1303-2020-8-1-1-10","article-title":"Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in 5G Networks","volume":"8","author":"Abdellah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Telecom IT"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Penn State (2023, September 27). BIM Uses. Pennsylvania State University\u2014College of Engineering. Available online: https:\/\/bim.psu.edu\/uses\/."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2018.08.474","article-title":"Digital Twin in manufacturing: A categorical literature review and classification","volume":"51","author":"Kritzinger","year":"2018","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Digital Twin Consortium (2023, September 27). Glossary of Digital Twins. Available online: https:\/\/www.digitaltwinconsortium.org\/glossary\/glossary\/#digital-thread."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Barbosa, F., Woetzel, J., Mischke, J., Ribeirinho, M.J., Sridhar, M., Parsons, M., Bertram, N., and Brown, S. (2017). Reinventing Construction: A Route to Higher Productivity, McKinsey & Company. Available online: https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/capabilities\/operations\/our-insights\/reinventing-construction-through-a-productivity-revolution."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borrmann, A., K\u00f6nig, M., Koch, C., and Beetz, J. (2018). Building Information Modeling, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-92862-3"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"CBC (2023, September 27). Distributed Information & BIM Total Lifecycle. Construction Blockchain Consortium, Digital Construction Management Series, 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.constructionblockchain.org\/white-papers."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Blanchard, B.S., and Fabrycky, W.J. (1990). Systems Engineering and Analysis, Pearson Prentice Hall. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1017\/S0001924000091983","article-title":"Challenges in the Better, Faster, Cheaper Era of Aeronautical Design, Engineering, and Manufacturing","volume":"104","author":"Murman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aeronaut. J."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Feist, S., Sanhudo, L., Esteves, V., Pires, M., and Costa, A.A. (2022). 4\u00b0 Congresso Portugu\u00eas De Building Information Modelling, UMinho Editora."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"KiwiRail (2023, September 27). Hutt Valley Line\u2014Digital Shields. Available online: https:\/\/www.kiwirail.co.nz\/our-network\/our-regions\/wellington\/hutt-valley-line\/digital-shields\/."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Rev@Construction [a] (2023, September 27). O Projeto Mobilizador Para a Revolu\u00e7\u00e3o Digital da Constru\u00e7\u00e3o\u2014Confer\u00eancia Final. 27 June 2023. Available online: https:\/\/revconstruction.pt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Rev@_Conferencia_FINAL_total.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Rev@Construction [b] (2023, September 27). PointCloud4BIM. 30 June 2023. Available online: https:\/\/revconstruction.pt\/en\/outputs\/pointcloud4bim\/."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2023.105318","article-title":"Digital Twin-enabled and Knowledge-driven decision support for tunnel electromechanical equipment maintenance","volume":"140","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Barreto, P., Silva, L., Cabral, R., Correia, M., Davies, S., and Cordeiro, T. (2022). 10\u00b0 Congresso Rodoferrovi\u00e1rio Portugu\u00eas, Centro Rodoferrovi\u00e1rio Portugu\u00eas. Available online: https:\/\/10crp.crp.pt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/paper_132.pdf."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madni, A.M., Madni, C.C., and Lucero, S.D. (2019). Leveraging Digital Twin Technology in Model-Based Systems Engineering. Systems, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems7010007"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Patr\u00edcio, H. (2023). 1\u00b0 Workshop BIM\/SIG\u2014Infraestruturas Lineares e Geot\u00e9cnicas, Sociedade Portuguesa de Geotecnia. Available online: https:\/\/zenodo.org\/record\/8333912."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Azevedo, C. (2019). Asset Management Insights\u2014Phases, Practices, And Value, Industrial Press, Inc.. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-021-09595-6","article-title":"BIM and Semantic Enrichment Methods and Applications: A Review of Recent Developments","volume":"29","author":"Dinis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matoseiro Dinis, F., Rodrigues, R., and Pedro da Silva Po\u00e7as Martins, J. (2023). Development and validation of natural user interfaces for semantic enrichment of BIM models using open formats. Constr. Innov., ahead-of-print.","DOI":"10.1108\/CI-12-2022-0348"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69605","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3186353","article-title":"Digital Twins: A Maturity Model for Their Classification and Evaluation","volume":"10","author":"Uhlenkamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Rook, B. (2019). How Digital Twins Are Transforming Wind Operations, Windpower Engineering & Development. Available online: https:\/\/www.windpowerengineering.com\/how-digital-twins-are-transforming-wind-operations\/."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Digital Government Authority (2023, September 27). Digital Twin, 2021, Available online: https:\/\/dga.gov.sa\/sites\/default\/files\/2022-08\/Digital%20Twin.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"TechUK (2023, September 27). Unlocking Value Across the UK\u2019s Digital Twin Ecosystem. February, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.ashb.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/IS-2021-240.pdf."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Lamb, K. (2019). Principle-Based Digital Twins: A Scoping Review, Centre for Digital Built Britain."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Evans, S., Savian, C., Burns, A., and Cooper, C. (2019). Digital Twins for the Built Environment\u2014An Introduction to the Opportunities, Benefits, Challenges and Risks, The Institution of Engineering and Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.theiet.org\/media\/8762\/digital-twins-for-the-built-environment.pdf."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"CDBB [a] (2023, September 27). Digital Twin Interactive Navigator. Centre for Digital Built Britain, version 01, 11 May 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.cdbb.cam.ac.uk\/files\/cdbb_dt_navigator_with_links_11.05.2021.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Kim, Y.-W., Yoo, S., and Lee, H. (2023). Characterization of Digital Twin, ResearchGate. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/353930234."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Bray, R. (2021). Harnessing BIM to Realize Digital Twins, Autodesk. Available online: https:\/\/investors.autodesk.com\/static-files\/ed778b66-bae4-4006-99a8-064359ff196e."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"BSI Group (2022). JTC1-SC41\/298\/NP Digital Twin\u2014Maturity Model and Guidance for a Maturity Assessment, BSI Group, Standards Development. Available online: https:\/\/standardsdevelopment.bsigroup.com\/projects\/9022-07390#\/section."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"ARUP (2019). Digital Twin\u2014Towards a Meaningful Framework, ARUP. Available online: www.arup.com\/digitaltwinreport."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatti, S., and Tolio, T. (2019). CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53120-4"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Harper, K.E., Ganz, C., and Malakuti, S. (2019). Digital Twin Architecture and Standards. IIC J. Innov., 12pp. Available online: https:\/\/www.iiconsortium.org\/news-pdf\/joi-articles\/2019-November-JoI-Digital-Twin-Architecture-and-Standards.pdf."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Woods, E., and Freeas, B. (2019). Creating Zero Carbon Communities: The Role of Digital Twins, Commissioned by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES). Available online: https:\/\/www.iesve.com\/support\/white-papers\/digital-twin-white-paper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Turner, J., Ferris, R., and Eckhardt, S. (2023, September 27). Infrastructure Digital Twin Maturity: A Model for Measuring Progress. A Digital Twin Consortium White Paper, 4 August 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.digitaltwinconsortium.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3\/2022\/06\/Infrastructure-Digital-Twin-Maturity-Model.pdf."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Bolpagni, M., Hooper, E., Boutle, A., Rossiter, D., Churcher, D., Tennyson, R., Davidson, S., Thompson, N., Dearlove, J., and Winfield, M. (2020). Information Management According to BS EN ISO 19650\u2014Guidance Part 2: Processes for Project Delivery, UK BIM Framework. [4th ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/ukbimframework.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/ISO19650-2Edition4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2020). EN 17412-1:2020\u2014Building Information Modelling\u2014Level of Information Need\u2014Part 1: Concepts and principles (Standard No. EN 17412-1)."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2018). ISO 19650-1:2018\u2014Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civil engineering works, including building information modelling (BIM)\u2014Information management using building information modelling\u2014Part 1: Concepts and principles (Standard No. ISO 19650-1)."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nour El-Din, M., Pereira, P.F., Po\u00e7as Martins, J., and Ramos, N.M.M. (2022). Digital Twins for Construction Assets Using BIM Standard Specifications. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12122155"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"CDBB [b] (2023, September 27). Describing Digital Twins\u2014Anatomy and Taxonomy for Digital Twins. Centre for Digital Built Britain, National Digital Twin Programme, 2021. Available online: https:\/\/digital-twins.kumu.io\/describing-digital-twins."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7610","DOI":"10.1080\/00207543.2021.2014591","article-title":"The emergence of cognitive digital twin: Vision, challenges and opportunities","volume":"60","author":"Zheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"National Institute of Building Sciences BuildingSMART Alliance (2015). National BIM Standard\u2014United States Version 3 (Standard No. NBIMS-USTM V3). Available online: https:\/\/www.nationalbimstandard.org\/files\/NBIMS-US_V3_5.2_Minimum_BIM.pdf."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"NATSPEC BIM (2023, October 18). NATSPEC National BIM Guide\u2014BIM Object\/Element Matrix Manual v1.0. Available online: https:\/\/bim.natspec.org\/images\/NATSPEC_Documents\/NATSPEC_BIM_Object-Element_Matrix_v1.0_Sep_2011.xls."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"UNITED BIM (2023, October 18). BIM Level of Development|LOD 100, 200, 300, 350, 400, 500. Available online: https:\/\/www.united-bim.com\/bim-level-of-development-lod-100-200-300-350-400-500\/."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Zeda.io (2023, October 18). What is MoSCoW Prioritisation & How to Use It?. Available online: https:\/\/zeda.io\/blog\/what-is-moscow-prioritisation-how-to-use-it."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Bittner, K., and Spence, I. (2002). Use Case Modeling, Addison Wesley. [1st ed.]. Addison-Wesley Professional, Addison-Wesley Object Technology Series."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Weird Geek (2018). 5 Types of Analytics: Prescriptive, Predictive, Diagnostic, Descriptive and Cognitive Analytics, Weird Geek. Available online: https:\/\/www.weirdgeek.com\/2018\/11\/types-of-analytics\/."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"BASF (2023, September 27). BASF Coatings Online Trainings\u2014Chapter 4\u2014Data Analytics. Available online: https:\/\/lean.coatings-campus.basf.com\/en\/chapter-4-data-analytics."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40436-021-00375-w","article-title":"State-of-the-art survey on digital twin implementations","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-26307-7","article-title":"Automatic generation of structural geometric digital twins from point clouds","volume":"12","author":"Mirzaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s41064-020-00092-2","article-title":"The Digital Twin of the City of Zurich for Urban Planning","volume":"88","author":"Schrotter","year":"2020","journal-title":"PFG"},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Singapore Land Authority (2023, September 27). Virtual Singapore, Available online: https:\/\/www.sla.gov.sg\/geospatial\/gw\/virtual-singapore."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12378","article-title":"Automatic Generation of Semantically Rich As-Built Building Information Models Using 2D Images: A Derivative-Free Optimization Approach","volume":"33","author":"Xue","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"BIM Forum (2015). Level of Development Specification, BIM Forum. Available online: https:\/\/bimforum.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/BIMForum_LOD_2015_reprint.pdf."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Swaddle, P. (2022). Specification Development and Digital Plans of Work, National Building Specification. Available online: https:\/\/www.thenbs.com\/knowledge\/specification-development-and-digital-plans-of-work."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959475","DOI":"10.3389\/fbuil.2022.959475","article-title":"Toward cognitive digital twins using a BIM-GIS asset management system for a diffused university","volume":"8","author":"Meschini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2006.02.008","article-title":"An intelligent maintenance system for continuous cost-based prioritisation of maintenance activities","volume":"57","author":"Moore","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shahzad, M., Shafiq, M.T., Douglas, D., and Kassem, M. (2022). Digital Twins in Built Environments: An Investigation of the Characteristics, Applications, and Challenges. Buildings, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings12020120"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103688","article-title":"Integrated digital twin and blockchain framework to support accountable information sharing in construction projects","volume":"127","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"IP (2023, November 16). Relat\u00f3rio e Contas, 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.infraestruturasdeportugal.pt\/sites\/default\/files\/inline-files\/RC_2022_IP_nao_ESEF.pdf."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"IP (2023, November 16). 50 Desafios de Inova\u00e7\u00e3o da IP, 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.infraestruturasdeportugal.pt\/sites\/default\/files\/inline-files\/DesafiosIDI-2023.pdf."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Ferrovia 4.0 (2023, October 19). Sistema de An\u00e1lise de \u00d3leos Isolantes em Transformadores de Tra\u00e7\u00e3o. Ferrovia 4.0, PPS1\u2014Sustainability of the Railway System, 2023. Available online: http:\/\/ferrovia40.pt\/estrutura-do-projeto\/sustentabilidade-do-sistema-ferroviario\/?lang=en."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nhamage, I.A., Dang, N.-S., Horas, C.S., Po\u00e7as Martins, J., Matos, J.A., and Cal\u00e7ada, R. (2023). Performing Fatigue State Characterization in Railway Steel Bridges Using Digital Twin Models. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13116741"},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Oliveira, J., Rebelo, F., Silva, H., Oliveira e S\u00e1, J., Paix\u00e3o, A., Freire, A.C., de Lurdes Antunes, M., Fortunato, E., Afonso, J., and Alvarenga, P. (2022). Desenvolvimento de um Sistema de Monitoriza\u00e7\u00e3o para Avaliar o Desempenho de Pavimentos Rodovi\u00e1rios Durante o Seu ciclo de Vida \u2013 App Pav 4.0 lc, 10\u00b0 Congresso Rodoferrovi\u00e1rio Portugu\u00eas. Available online: https:\/\/10crp.crp.pt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/paper_106.pdf."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Rev@Construction [c] (2023, September 27). Workshops Demonstradores PAV 4.0 LC. 24 May 2023. Available online: https:\/\/revconstruction.pt\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/Rev@_WSPAV40LC.pdf."}],"container-title":["Applied System Innovation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-5577\/6\/6\/114\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:34:15Z","timestamp":1760132055000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-5577\/6\/6\/114"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["asi6060114"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/asi6060114","relation":{},"ISSN":["2571-5577"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2571-5577","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]}}}