{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:26:17Z","timestamp":1760239577321,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,22]],"date-time":"2020-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606003200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Atmosphere"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Madeira International Airport (MIA) lies on the island\u2019s south-eastern coast and it is known to be exposed to wind hazards. A link between these adverse winds at MIA and the synoptic-scale circulation is established using a weather type (WT) classification. From April to September (summer period), five WTs prevail, cumulatively representing nearly 70% of days. These WTs reflect the presence of well-established Azores high, with some variations on location and strength. Although with a low frequency of occurrence (&lt;5%), this anticyclone occasionally strengthens and extends towards Iberia, inducing anomalously strong NNE\/NE up to 3\u20135 km over Madeira. The most severe and longer-lasting wind conditions at the MIA, with a higher frequency of gusts above 35 kt, are driven by this synoptic-scale pattern and are more common in summer. An episode of adverse winds at the MIA is analysed, illustrating the occurrence of upstream stagnation, flow splitting, and lee wake formation. The upstream conditions include a low-level inversion, strong NNE\/NE winds near and above the inversion and a Froude number less than 1. The AROME (Application of Research to Operations at Mesoscale) model predicted the occurrence of downslope winds, in association with a large-amplitude mountain wave. At this time, the strongest wind gusts were registered and one aircraft executed a missed approach. The wind regime in different places of the island suggests that these conditions are relatively frequent, mostly in summer. Finally, objective verification of AROME wind forecast, for a three-year period and from June to August, is discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11111257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,23]],"date-time":"2020-11-23T01:28:48Z","timestamp":1606094928000},"page":"1257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Air-Traffic Restrictions at the Madeira International Airport Due to Adverse Winds: Links to Synoptic-Scale Patterns and Orographic Effects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6609-1548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margarida","family":"Belo-Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Portugu\u00eas do Mar e da Atmosfera, Divis\u00e3o de Meteorologia Aeron\u00e1utica, Rua C do Aeroporto, 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8135-5078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o A.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, CITAB, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1686","article-title":"Influence of meteorological phenomena on worldwide aircraft accidents, 1967\u20132010","volume":"25","author":"Mazon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Met. Apps."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1869","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-019-02168-6","article-title":"A Review of High Impact Weather for Aviation Meteorology","volume":"176","author":"Gultepe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2000)057<1105:OOADCA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Origins of Aircraft-Damaging Clear-Air Turbulence during the 9 December 1992 Colorado Downslope Windstorm: Numerical Simulations and Comparison with Observations","volume":"57","author":"Clark","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-11-044.1","article-title":"An Investigation of a Commercial Aircraft Encounter with Severe Clear-Air Turbulence over Western Greenland","volume":"51","author":"Sharman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.22499\/2.6303.003","article-title":"Trapped Mountain Waves during a Light Aircraft Accident","volume":"63","author":"Parker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-13-00212.1","article-title":"Simulations of Observed Lee Waves and Rotor Turbulence","volume":"142","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-14-0270.1","article-title":"Lee Waves Associated with a Commercial Jetliner Accident at Denver International Airport","volume":"54","author":"Keller","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maruhashi, J., Serr\u00e3o, P., and Belo-Pereira, M. (2019). Analysis of Mountain Wave Effects on a Hard Landing Incident in Pico Aerodrome Using the AROME Model and Airborne Observations. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10070350"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1989)046<1154:LFNFPT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Low Froude Number Flow Past Three-Dimensional Obstacles. Part I: Baroclinically Generated Lee Vortices","volume":"46","author":"Smolarkiewicz","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1993)050<1373:SWFPIT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Shallow-Water Flow past Isolated Topography. Part I: Vorticity Production and Wake Formation","volume":"50","author":"Smith","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1998)037<1047:NSOFPO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Numerical Study on Flow Pass of a Three-dimensional Obstacle under a Strong Stratification Condition","volume":"37","author":"Sha","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112099007636","article-title":"V-waves, bow shocks, and wakes in supercritical hydrostatic flow","volume":"406","author":"Jiang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1997)054<0534:VFAVSI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Vortex Formation and Vortex Shedding in Continuously Stratified Flows past Isolated Topography","volume":"54","author":"Durran","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Epifanio, C.C. (2014). Lee Vortices. Encyclopedia of the Atmospheric Sciences, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"100 Years of Progress on Mountain Meteorology Research","volume":"59","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Meteorol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3728","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1993)050<3728:AOOHW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Aerial Observations of Hawaii\u2019s Wake","volume":"50","author":"Smith","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1962)090<0457:SPOME>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Satellite pictures of mesoscale eddies","volume":"90","author":"Hubert","year":"1962","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1965)022<0652:MEIWOI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Mesoscale Eddies in Wake of Islands","volume":"22","author":"Chopra","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2012\/0313","article-title":"The Structure of K\u00e1rm\u00e1n Vortex Streets in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer derived from Large Eddy Simulation","volume":"21","author":"Heinze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3971","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<3971:SNFOAA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Strongly Nonlinear Flow over and around a Three-Dimensional Mountain as a Function of the Horizontal Aspect Ratio","volume":"57","author":"Bauer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1997)010<0728:TNASA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The North Atlantic subtropical anticyclone","volume":"10","author":"Davis","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Climate"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-015-0081-1","article-title":"Characterization of the Marine Boundary Layer and the Trade-Wind Inversion over the Sub-tropical North Atlantic","volume":"158","author":"Carrillo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bound.-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4755","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0251.1","article-title":"Atmospheric Wake of Madeira: First Aerial Observations and Numerical Simulations","volume":"72","author":"Sachsperger","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-013-9817-y","article-title":"Wake Response to an Ocean-Feedback Mechanism: Madeira Island Case Study","volume":"148","author":"Caldeira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2012.09.005","article-title":"Wind Meditated Vorticity-generation and Eddy-confinement, Leeward of the Madeira Island: 2008 Numerical Case Study","volume":"58","author":"Couvelard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD024399","article-title":"Understanding climate change projections for precipitation over western Europe with a weather typing approach","volume":"121","author":"Santos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Wilks, D. (2011). Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1175\/2010MWR3425.1","article-title":"The AROME-France Convective-Scale Operational Model","volume":"139","author":"Seity","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Turbulence Scheme Allowing for Mesoscale and Large-eddy Simulations","volume":"126","author":"Cuxart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1510","article-title":"Verification of the French operational high-resolution model AROME with the regional Brier probability score","volume":"22","author":"Amodei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Met. Apps."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Alaka, M.A. (1968). The Airflow over Mountains, World Meteorological Organisation. WMO, Technical Note No 98, TP. 34."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.03.63","article-title":"Inversion Effects on Mountain Lee Waves","volume":"130","author":"Vosper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.04.51","article-title":"Observations of downslope winds and rotors in the Falkland Islands","volume":"131","author":"Mobbs","year":"2005","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.04.01","article-title":"The effect of upstream wind direction on atmospheric flow in the vicinity of a large mountain","volume":"131","year":"2005","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ICAO (2016). Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation\u2014Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). [19th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18039","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900246","article-title":"Strong downslope winds and application of hydraulic-like theory","volume":"105","author":"Helmis","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"610","article-title":"On the Ability of the WRF Model to Reproduce the Surface Wind Direction over Complex Terrain","volume":"52","author":"Dudhia","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(2003)018<1140:VOMNWF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Verification of Mesoscale Numerical Weather Forecasts in Mountainous Terrain for Application to Avalanche Prediction","volume":"18","author":"Roeger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1986)043<2527:ALADWP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Another Look at Downslope Windstorms. Part I: The Development of Analogs to Supercritical Flow in an Infinitely Deep, Continuously Stratified Fluid","volume":"43","author":"Durran","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1175\/2008WAF2007096.1","article-title":"On High Winds and Foehn Warming Associated with Mountain-Wave Events in the Western Foothills of the Southern Appalachian Mountains","volume":"24","author":"Gaffin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2687","DOI":"10.1175\/2009MWR2878.1","article-title":"Statistics and Dynamics of Aircraft Encounters of Turbulence over Greenland","volume":"137","author":"Lane","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-17-0128.1","article-title":"Mountain-Wave Turbulence in the Presence of Directional Wind Shear over the Rocky Mountains","volume":"75","author":"Guarino","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."}],"container-title":["Atmosphere"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4433\/11\/11\/1257\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:35:38Z","timestamp":1760178938000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4433\/11\/11\/1257"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,22]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["atmos11111257"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos11111257","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4433"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-4433"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,22]]}}}