{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T11:56:41Z","timestamp":1770292601267,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FCT\/MCTES through national funds","award":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\/MCTES through national funds","award":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"EU funds","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"EU funds","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research (MUR)","award":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/EEA\/50008\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research (MUR)","award":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRIN 2022KB2HZM"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Batteries"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The evolution of rechargeable battery characteristics have led to their use in almost every device in our everyday life. This importance has also increased the relevance of estimating the remaining battery charge (state of charge, SOC) and their health (state of health, SOH). One of the methods for the estimation of these parameters is based on the impedance spectroscopy obtained from the battery output impedance measured at multiple frequencies. This paper proposes an embedded measurement system capable of measuring the battery output impedance while in operation (either charging or supplying power to the intended device). The developed system generates a small amplitude stimulus that is added to the battery current. The system then measures the battery voltage and current to estimate the impedance at the stimulus frequencies. Three batteries were measured at different SOC levels, demonstrating the system principle of operation. Complementarily, a battery impedance equivalent circuit was used, together with genetic algorithms, to estimate the circuit parameters and assess their dependence on the battery SOC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries9120577","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T07:41:32Z","timestamp":1701157292000},"page":"577","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Battery Impedance Spectroscopy Embedded Measurement System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4751-0953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriele","family":"Cicioni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7953-4272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessio","family":"De Angelis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6005-2844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando M.","family":"Janeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Universidade de \u00c9vora, 7000-671 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8914-9781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro M.","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Instituto Superior T\u00e9cnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0540-1287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, 06125 Perugia, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1109\/MPE.2017.2708812","article-title":"Technological Developments in Batteries: A Survey of Principal Roles, Types, and Management Needs","volume":"15","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Power Energy Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.09.081","article-title":"Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation","volume":"137","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. 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