{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T09:17:24Z","timestamp":1778145444378,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["PTDC\/EME-SIS\/4446\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PTDC\/EME-SIS\/4446\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["2022.10564. PTDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.10564. PTDC"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDB\/04044\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04044\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["UIDP\/04044\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/04044\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e Tecnologia (FCT)","award":["ARISE LA\/P\/0112\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ARISE LA\/P\/0112\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioengineering"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Understanding the complex mechanical behavior of osteochondral tissues in silico is essential for improving experimental models and advancing research in joint health and degeneration. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the constitutive models currently used to represent the different layers of the osteochondral region, from articular cartilage to subchondral bone, including intermediate regions such as the tidemark and the calcified cartilage layer. Each layer exhibits unique structural and mechanical properties, necessitating a layer-specific modeling approach. Through critical comparison of existing mathematical models, the viscoelastic model is suggested as a pragmatic starting point for modeling articular cartilage zones, the tidemark, and the calcified cartilage layer, as it captures essential time-dependent behaviors such as creep and stress relaxation while ensuring computational efficiency for initial coupling studies. On the other hand, a linear elastic model was identified as an optimal starting point for both the subchondral bone plate and the subchondral trabecular bone, reflecting their dense and stiff nature, and providing a coherent framework for early-stage multilayer integration. This layered modeling approach enables the development of physiologically coherent and computationally efficient representations of osteochondral region modeling. Furthermore, by establishing a layer-specific modeling approach, this review paves the way for modular in silico simulations through the coupling of computational models. Such an integrative framework supports scaffold design, in vitro experimentation, preclinical validation, and the mechanobiological exploration of osteochondral degeneration and repair. These efforts are essential for deepening our understanding of tissue responses under both physiological and pathological conditions. Ultimately, this work provides a robust theoretical foundation for future in silico and in vitro studies aimed at advancing osteochondral tissue regeneration strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12060649","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T09:51:24Z","timestamp":1749808284000},"page":"649","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Toward Integrative Biomechanical Models of Osteochondral Tissues: A Multilayered Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7969-9050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruna","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Rapid and Sustainable Product Development (CDRSP), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2430-028 Marinha Grande, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6693-790X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Domingos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8356-4810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandra","family":"Amado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Rapid and Sustainable Product Development (CDRSP), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2430-028 Marinha Grande, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7079-1069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juliana","family":"R. Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Rapid and Sustainable Product Development (CDRSP), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2430-028 Marinha Grande, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1474-9496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Pascoal-Faria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Rapid and Sustainable Product Development (CDRSP), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2430-028 Marinha Grande, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Mathematics, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Ana C.","family":"Maur\u00edcio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Estudos de Ci\u00eancia Animal (CECA), Instituto de Ci\u00eancias, Tecnologias e Agroambiente da Universidade do Porto (ICETA), 4050-453 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Cl\u00ednicas Veterin\u00e1rias, Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), 4099-002 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5016-0868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuno","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Rapid and Sustainable Product Development (CDRSP), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2430-028 Marinha Grande, Portugal"},{"name":"Associate Laboratory for Advanced Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e508","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(23)00163-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of osteoarthritis, 1990\u20132020 and projections to 2050: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"5","author":"Steinmetz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacob, G., Shimomura, K., and Nakamura, N. 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