{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T22:48:55Z","timestamp":1775170135142,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study aimed to develop reference values for bioelectrical phase angle in male and female athletes from different sports. Overall, 2224 subjects participated in this study [1658 males (age 26.2 \u00b1 8.9 y) and 566 females (age 26.9 \u00b1 6.6 y)]. Participants were categorized by their sport discipline and sorted into three different sport modalities: endurance, velocity\/power, and team sports. Phase angle was directly measured using a foot-to-hand bioimpedance technology at a 50 kHz frequency during the in-season period. Reference percentiles (5th, 15th, 50th, 85th, and 95th) were calculated and stratified by sex, sport discipline and modality using an empirical Bayesian analysis. This method allows for the sharing of information between different groups, creating reference percentiles, even for sports disciplines with few observations. Phase angle differed (men: p &lt; 0.001; women: p = 0.003) among the three sport modalities, where endurance athletes showed a lower value than the other groups (men: vs. velocity\/power: p = 0.010, 95% CI = \u22120.43 to \u22120.04; vs. team sports: p &lt; 0.001, 95% CI = \u22120.48 to \u22120.02; women: vs. velocity\/power: p = 0.002, 95% CI = \u22120.59 to \u22120.10; vs. team sports: p = 0.015, 95% CI = \u22120.52 to \u22120.04). Male athletes showed a higher phase angle than female athletes within each sport modality (endurance: p &lt; 0.01, 95% CI = 0.63 to 1.14; velocity\/power: p &lt; 0.01, 95% CI = 0.68 to 1.07; team sports: p &lt; 0.01, 95% CI = 0.98 to 1.23). We derived phase angle reference percentiles for endurance, velocity\/power, and team sports athletes. Additionally, we calculated sex-specific references for a total of 22 and 19 sport disciplines for male and female athletes, respectively. This study provides sex- and sport-specific percentiles for phase angle that can track body composition and performance-related parameters in athletes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11020264","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,9]],"date-time":"2022-02-09T01:03:40Z","timestamp":1644368620000},"page":"264","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Reference Percentiles for Bioelectrical Phase Angle in Athletes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3028-7802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Campa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 47921 Rimini, Italy"}]},{"given":"Diana Maria","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA"}]},{"given":"Krista","family":"Watts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4279-8367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7470-660X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Baller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Morin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5478-2499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Toselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, 40121 Bologna, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3189-9261","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josely Correa","family":"Koury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Nutrition Institute, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20550-900, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Melchiorri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Medicine, University of Tor Vergata, 00175 Rome, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8730-7862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela","family":"Andreoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Medicine, University of Tor Vergata, 00175 Rome, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8842-0354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriele","family":"Mascherini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9741-0481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristian","family":"Petri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sports and Computer Science, Section of Physical Education and Sports, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain"}]},{"given":"Luis Bettencourt","family":"Sardinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8984-8600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Analiza Monica","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1499-002 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0321-9","article-title":"Structural and functional body components in athletic health and performance phenotypes","volume":"73","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. 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